Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Physics

Understanding Wave Motion

Wave motion is a form of energy transmission that is not accompanied by the transport of matter. It is the propagation of a vibration, i.e., the propagation of movement around the equilibrium position of a body.

A wave is the position taken at each instant by the disturbance that has occurred.

Types of Waves

• Mechanical waves originate when a disturbance occurs in an elastic medium, which would not exist without the spread.
• Electromagnetic waves, although they may be transmitted through certain media, do not necessarily need an elastic medium and can propagate in a vacuum.

Wave Characteristics

• In longitudinal waves, the vibrations of particles around their equilibrium point occur in the same direction in which the wave propagates.

... Continue reading "Understanding Wave Motion: Types, Properties, and Sound" »

Motion and Kinematics

Reference Systems and Motion

A reference system is a point from which the movement of a body is observed. The temporal reference system indicates the starting time for studying a movement, represented by the letter T, with the SI unit of seconds (s). A body's movement involves changes in its position over time relative to a spatial and temporal reference system. Kinematics is the branch of physics that studies motion.

Position and Trajectory

Position indicates a body's location with respect to a reference system at a given time. The trajectory is the set of points through which a body moves concerning a reference system. Trajectories can be classified as:

• Rectilinear motion: The trajectory is a straight line.
• Curvilinear motion:

... Continue reading "Motion, Forces, and Dynamics: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Physics Problems: Work, Energy, and Forces

This document presents a series of physics problems focusing on concepts of work, energy, and forces, followed by their detailed solutions. These exercises are designed to reinforce understanding of fundamental mechanics principles.

Problem Statements

• Problem 1: Work as a Scalar or Vector?

  Is work a vector or a scalar quantity?

• Problem 2: Negative Work Scenarios

  Can work be negative? If so, in what cases does it occur?

• Problem 3: When is Energy Not Conserved?

  In what cases is mechanical energy not conserved?

• Problem 4: Work Done on a Box

  A box weighing 900 [N] rests on the ground. Calculate the work required to move it at a constant speed:

  • a) Moving Horizontally Against Friction

    4 [m] on the floor against a friction

... Continue reading "Physics Problem Set: Work, Energy, and Force Calculations" »

Photogrammetry and Imaging Fundamentals

• Photography is a complete representation of an object that provides metric information. False.
• Photogrammetry allows us to reconstruct a three-dimensional model from a photograph of an object. False.
• To perform photogrammetric restitution, it is necessary to orient photographs to their position at the time of the shot. True.
• A photogrammetric document provides qualitative exploitation. True.
• Photogrammetry is a method suitable for small tracts of land. False.
• To perform photogrammetric restitution, it is necessary to have a photograph of the object to be restituted. False.
• The ideal photogrammetric camera is one that allows the continuous and accurate capture of an image. False.

Camera and Image Quality

• The aerial

... Continue reading "Essential Photogrammetry and Imaging Facts" »

Il Gesu: A Precursor to Baroque

The construction of Il Gesu began in 1527 but faced delays due to financial constraints. It was finally consecrated in 1685 by Andrea Pozzo, although it remained unfinished. Andrea Pozzo painted the dome on canvas, where the roof is flat.

The Facade

The facade bears a striking resemblance to that of the Church of the Gesu. The lower section features a similar joint, with notable entry columns. There is an interplay of inputs and outputs, verticality, and decorative plates with angles, which are more pronounced. These plates would become a defining feature of the Baroque style. On the second level, columns are positioned in front of the pillars seen in the Gesu. The pediment introduces a decorative element, departing... Continue reading "Baroque and Renaissance Architecture: Saint Peter's Basilica and Il Gesu" »

amprio: is the current that, flowing through two parallel conductors Separated from each other by 1m distance, produces on each of them a force of 2.10-7 N per meter of length of the conductor.

The magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines that cross a given surface. Is measured in webers. Faraday had found that moving a magnet inside a coil connected to a galvanometer that indicated current flow though the coil was not connected to any generator. The same happened if the coil was that moved over the magnet. This phenomenon we call electromagnetic unduccion was interpreted as a function of its field lines and expressed by the following law: the electromotive force induced in a circuit equals the time rate of change of magnetic flux... Continue reading "Fundamental Concepts of Electromagnetism: Ampere, Flux, and Transformers" »

Understanding Energy: Definition and Units

Energy is the ability of bodies to perform work. Key formulas and conversions include:

• E = P * t (Energy = Power * time)
• E = Q * U (Energy = Charge * Voltage)

Common units of energy are: 1 Watt-hour (Wh) and 1 Joule (J). Important conversions are:

• 1 Joule (J) = 0.239 calories (cal)
• 1 calorie (cal) = 4.18 Joules (J)
• 1 Watt-hour (Wh) = 3,600 Joules (J)

Forms of Energy

Kinetic Energy

The energy possessed by a body due to its motion, depending on its speed and mass.

Potential Energy

Stored energy, often due to a body's position or state, such as its height above a reference point (e.g., the ground).

Mechanical Energy

The sum of kinetic and potential energy in a system, often associated with the motion or position... Continue reading "Energy Fundamentals: Forms, Transformations, and Key Sources" »

Electric Potential: Definition and Fundamentals

Electric potential at a point is the work required to move a unit positive charge from infinity to that point within an electric field. It is defined by the formula: V_A = KQ / r_A

The unit of electric potential is the volt (V), defined as Joules per Coulomb (J/C). A point has a potential of one volt when one Joule of work is required to move a charge of one Coulomb from infinity to that point.

Key Properties of Electric Potential

• Electric potential can be positive or negative, depending on the sign of the charge (Q) that creates the field. A positive charge creates a positive potential, while a negative charge creates a negative potential.
• All points equidistant from a point charge that creates the

... Continue reading "Electric Potential: Core Concepts and Applications" »

Electrostatics: Electricity at Rest

Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest.

Benjamin Franklin was the first to assign the names positive and negative to the two types of electric charge, noting that the assignment could have been the opposite.

Protons have approximately 1800 times more mass than electrons, but carry the same magnitude of charge.

Quantization of Electric Charge

Electric charge is always quantized. It is formed by small, indivisible packets. The elementary charge is $1.6 \times 10^{-19}$ Coulomb. Charge cannot be less than this value, nor can it be a fractional amount of this elementary charge; only integer multiples are possible.

Coulomb's Law

Coulomb's Law describes the force ($F$) between two point charges:

• $F = K

... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Electrostatics: Charge, Fields, and Potential" »

1. Waves and Communication

Electromagnetic waves are transmitted through various communication systems, such as radio, telephone, or even our voice. A wave is a disturbance that travels through space without transferring material, but energy.

Features of Waves

• The time it takes for one complete oscillation is called the period.
• The number of oscillations per second is called frequency (f) and equals the inverse of the period: f = 1 / T. It is measured in s^-1, also known as Hertz (Hz).
• The distance between two peaks (the highest points of a wave) or two valleys (the lowest points of a wave) is the wavelength (λ). The longer the wavelength, the lower its frequency.
• The amplitude (A) is the maximum distance a particle displaced by the wave reaches

... Continue reading "Understanding Waves: Communication, Types, and the Electromagnetic Spectrum" »