Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Physics

Henry's Experiment

If a driver or wire moves perpendicular to a magnetic field, it causes a potential difference across the ends of the conductor. This potential difference causes a current if the driver is part of a closed circuit.

Faraday's Law

Any change in magnetic flux through a circuit causes an induced current. This is produced by a known electromotive force (induced EMF), which exists only for the duration of this change in flux and is proportional to the rate of change of flow.

Lenz's Law

The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the cause that produces it.

Alternator

An alternator consists of a flat coil of N turns, rotating with constant angular velocity within a uniform magnetic field B. In the coil, an EMF is induced... Continue reading "Electromagnetism and Optics: Principles and Applications" »

Methods of Electrification

• Electrification by Friction

  This process involves the transfer of electrons, where one material loses electrons and another gains them.

• Electrification by Induction

  In this method, no electron transfer occurs between objects. Instead, there is a redistribution of existing electric charges within the body.

• Electrification by Contact

  When a negatively charged object touches a neutral body, negative charge is transferred from the charged body to the neutral one.

Lightning: Natural Electrical Discharges

Clouds become electrically charged by friction with air due to their motion. The top of a cloud often becomes positively charged, while the bottom accumulates negative charges. This charge separation, along with the Earth's surface,... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Electricity and Circuits" »

Understanding Sound

Sound Intensity

Intensity (dependent on size): Distinguishes between strong and weak sounds. Physical intensity relates to the energy carried by the sound wave.

Auditory Intensity: This is the sensation perceived by our ears, and it depends on physical intensity and other factors.

Timbre

Timbre depends on the waveform. Physically, a sound's timbre depends on its wave composition.

Noise Sources

A sound source is any vibrating body that can produce elastic waves in the surrounding environment.

Properties of Sound

Reflection

Sound waves reflect when they encounter a hard surface.

Echo

An echo is the repetition of a sound due to its reflection.

Refraction

Refraction is the deviation of sound waves in air layers of different temperatures.... Continue reading "Understanding Sound and Wave Properties" »

Properties of Matter

Matter occupies space that can be measured. Two pieces of matter cannot occupy the same space.

The objects that surround us and which have defined limits are known as material bodies. If the limits are not precise, then we speak of material systems.

Properties of Matter

All the qualities of a material body are properties of matter.

• Extensive properties of matter: Extensive properties depend on the size of the material body we are observing, such as mass and volume.
• Intensive properties of matter: Intensive properties are not dependent on body size observed. They serve to differentiate material bodies. We say that two material bodies are composed of the same substance when they have the same intensive properties.

Measurement

What

Fluid Pressure and its Effects

A fluid exerts pressure in all directions on a body immersed in it (P = d * h * g). The magnitude increases with depth. The pressure does not depend on the area. If h is the same, the pressure will be the same. But the force depends on the area. The force of the water at the bottom of a lake is greater than that exerted in a pool (F = P * A). The pressure exerted by a liquid also depends on its density. If the liquid in Torricelli's experiment had been any other than mercury and of lower density, the column would have increased.

Bathysphere: A spherical steel tank used for underwater observations, supported by a cable from a ship.

States of Matter

• Solid: Molecules are linked by very strong cohesion and have a definite

A Personal Update

Dear Uncle Joaquin,

Thank you very much for sending me the FIFA 20 for my birthday. It’s amazing; you remembered it's my favorite game!

I had an extraordinary day. My family has been congratulating me all day. Then I went with my cousins to play football. In the evening, I opened my parents' present – it was a ball from the Champions League! And in the afternoon, I went to the shopping center to buy a lot of clothes.

I’m looking forward to seeing you at the weekend.

Love,

Carlos

Football Team Analysis

In my review, I compared three prominent football teams: Real Madrid, Liverpool, and Bayern Munich. All three play very well in both attacking and defending.

Real Madrid: Young Talent and Dominance

Real Madrid is a dominant team... Continue reading "Football Team Performance & Sustainable Living Practices" »

Foundational Concepts in Physics

Early Ideas on Falling Bodies

Historically, Aristotle believed that objects with higher mass fall faster. However, Galileo Galilei famously disagreed, demonstrating that all objects fall at the same rate in a vacuum, regardless of their mass (neglecting air resistance).

Understanding Force

Force is defined as the measure of interaction between bodies. Forces can be categorized as:

• Contact forces: Require direct contact between objects.
• Distance forces: Act without direct contact (e.g., gravity, magnetism).

Forces are typically measured using a dynamometer.

Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's First Law: Inertia

Newton's First Law states: "If a body is not acted upon by any force, or if the total force acting on it is zero,

Unit III: Material Properties

1. Determination of the Characteristic Curve

It represents the functional relationships between the parameters characterizing a bomb. These curves show how and when a particular trip unit will act for a given time and current. A curve is represented by a band created by a minimum and a maximum value of time or current.

2. Lateral Deformation or Narrowing

It is a scale that measures how the width or space of a material is reduced due to an applied force.

3. Effort

Effort is the internal relationship of the materials when subjected to loads. It is usually expressed in intensity of force, i.e., force per unit area. The concept of effort is artificial; therefore, efforts cannot be measured experimentally. However, there... Continue reading "Understanding Material Properties: Stress, Strain, and Elasticity" »

Wave propagation systems TV: Systems of wave propagation are electomagneticas TV: Propagation Propagation by air and electrical conductors. But at the time the waves that propagate through the air can be classified into: ground electromagnetic waves : Those that propagate through the earth but in their path are all sorts of obstacles so the intensity decreases. Electromagnetic waves of space: They spread through the layers of the atmosphere, and these waves tend to move away from the land, finding the waves bounce off various obstacles to the ground with what is thus caught waves on earth. The polarization can be vertical or horizontal. The wavelength is measured in meters, the distance between two points is equal consecutivas.Se wave transmission... Continue reading "TV Antenna Technology: Wave Propagation, Components, and Geostationary Orbits" »

Stray Current Corrosion in Pipelines Near Railways

Understanding Stray Current Corrosion

It is difficult to prevent a significant proportion of current from leaving the rails and dissipating into the ground near substations, instead of returning directly to the track. This occurs because the negative terminal of the substation is connected to the rails, which are typically ungrounded.

These stray currents seek paths of least electrical resistance, often utilizing metal pipes such as water or gas pipelines, and telecommunications cable sheaths.

In places where these currents exit the pipes to re-enter the ground, destructive effects manifest themselves due to electrolytic corrosion.

Factors Influencing Corrosion

• These hazards are generally common