Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Contemporary Liberalism and Theories of Justice

All liberal theories of justice maintain that it is necessary to uphold pluralism in society, both philosophical and religious.

Propertarian Liberalism

Propertarian liberalism argues that a just society should not allow individuals to be deprived of what they legitimately own. Robert Nozick, in Anarchy, State, and Utopia, builds upon the idea of natural rights, recognizing the right to property.

Social Liberalism

Social liberalism posits that a just society treats its members with equal respect and consideration. John Rawls's Theory of Justice exemplifies this view.

Mixed Theory: Complex Equality

Michael Walzer, in Spheres of Justice, argues that justice involves a commitment to equality, meaning the... Continue reading "Liberalism, Justice, and Human Rights: Core Concepts" »

Understanding Different Forms of Knowledge

Vulgar (Common) Knowledge

Acquired through personal experience. It is:

• Private
• Subjective
• Lacking a formal method or theory
• Transferable
• Very useful

Scientific Knowledge

Logical, interrelated knowledge that is:

• Transmissible
• Universal
• Systematic
• Theoretical

Religious Knowledge

Attempts to explain phenomena, such as the origin of the universe, through faith. It aims to direct humanity's happiness through faith.

Philosophical Knowledge

Provides understanding about ourselves and the universe; it encourages human life and critical thinking.

Comparing Philosophy, Science, and Religion

Science studies a specific part of reality, while philosophy studies that reality as a whole, including individual perception. While science... Continue reading "The Nature of Knowledge & Philosophical Thinking" »

Concept and Types of Substance

Three realms have discovered reality: God, or the infinite and true; I, or the thinking thing; and material things. Infinite substance, thoughtful and extensive. "Substance" is only applicable to God, but it can be applied to other beings that we perceive clearly and distinctly and that do not need anything else, except God, to exist. How do we perceive substance? By perceiving attributes, qualities of the substance that cannot exist by themselves, and each substance has its own essence. Res cogitans (thinking substance): thought; Res extensa (extended substance): extension.

Demonstration of the Existence of God

Causation argument applied to the idea of Infinite God:

1. Theory of the objective reality of ideas.
2. From nothing,

11_ Forms Relate to Things in Three Ways:

1. The form is the cause of the essence of the thing.
2. A thing imitates a form.
3. A thing participates in a form.

Although the form is separated from the house, every real thing owes its existence to the shape. Forms are mutually related as genus and species and tend to interlock while maintaining their own unity. For example, the animal form is present in the horse form. This provides a hierarchy of forms, for which the visible world is only a lower reflection. The higher we are situated in the hierarchy, the more universal is the knowledge.

12_ Plato's Moral Philosophy

Plato's moral philosophy is concerned with the theory of forms. If one can be deceived by appearances of the physical world, one can still succumb... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Forms, Soul, Virtue, and State" »

Aristotle's Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

Aristotle's ethics, particularly as presented in the Nicomachean Ethics, develops the concept of eudaimonia, or felicity (happiness), as the supreme good. It identifies felicity as the ultimate goal, emphasizing that the good of the whole being is to develop its inherent capabilities and characteristics.

Eudaimonist Ethics and the Supreme Good

• The supreme good is happiness because it is an end in itself, always the ultimate goal, not merely a means to achieve something else.
• Happiness can be understood in various ways, such as through money, power, or health.
• For Aristotle, supreme happiness is found in contemplative activity. This eudaimonist ethical position combines several elements, not limited to

Key Dimensions of Human Existence

• Personal Dimensions: Internality, sociability, openness, eagerness to transcendence, life project.
• Components: Socio-cultural, socio-political, moral, and religious.

Determinism vs. Freedom

Determinism

Determinists argue that human beings are not free, but determined in their choices, doing what they can do at any given time.

Types of Determinism:

• Cosmological: Argues that a universal law governs humans and nature, making the future predictable and unchangeable.
• Theological: Believes that God knows and dominates all, predetermining all human actions.
• Scientific: Aims to explain human behavior through empirical dimensions.

Despite these theories, determinism fails to explain why we praise or reject certain behaviors,... Continue reading "Understanding Freedom, Responsibility, and Moral Living" »

Answer to the Question: What is the Illustration? (1784) The Illustration is ... explains the meaning of what will be discussed in this work, summarized as what is the I and its target, in the expression slogan "Dare to know." The output is that man has a disability. We declare that this inability is because man’s self-blame has chosen to star in their views of others, such as laziness, poor decision-making, cowardice, or lack of valor. The aim is to exceed the minority of intellectual maturity and learn to think for oneself, i.e., the development of autonomous reasoning. This concept is very Kantian in terms of autonomy and understanding its fundamental edge. It has been seen in their ethics. It signifies a critical exercise of reason without... Continue reading "Understanding the Enlightenment: Key Concepts and Ideas" »

The Institución Libre de Enseñanza: A History

The Institución Libre de Enseñanza (ILE) was founded in 1876 by professors from the Universidad Central de Madrid (Francisco Giner de los Ríos, Gumersindo Azcárate, Teodoro Sainz Rueda, and Nicolás Salmerón, among others). They defended academic freedom and refused to adjust their teaching to any official dogma in religion, politics, or morals. Giner de los Ríos stood out as a key figure.

The ILE was a moral regeneration project that remained consistent throughout its 60 years of existence: it aimed to create a "new man," capable of confronting the moral situation of the country and overcoming it, as well as fostering a new model to enhance individual and collective life, making it more rational,... Continue reading "The Institución Libre de Enseñanza: History and Legacy" »

Philosophy: Understanding Knowledge Through Reason

Philosophy, as a form of knowledge acquired through the use of reason, inquires into the fundamental nature of all things.

Characteristics of Philosophy

• It wonders about the nature of all real knowledge.
• It is radical, rational, and critical.
• It challenges dogmatism.

Functions of Philosophy

• Interdisciplinary: It connects various fields of study.
• Critical: It analyzes and evaluates assumptions.
• Abstract: It develops reasoning beyond the immediate and concrete.
• Practical: It is oriented towards human action.
• Radical: It deals with ultimate questions.

Science: Explaining and Predicting Phenomena

Science attempts to explain phenomena, predict outcomes, and control processes. Scientific knowledge is rational,... Continue reading "Philosophy, Science, and Epistemology: Key Concepts" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Man

To understand the philosophical concept of man, we can refer to the Platonic and Aristotelian views. According to Plato, man is a dual being, consisting of the soul and the body. The soul, considered the true man, is perfect, immortal, and immutable, imprisoned in the body to pay a karma and dominated by reason. The body is the prison of the soul.

Aristotle views man as a unitary being formed by the union of body and soul, where each alone would be nothing, but together they form man. A synthesis of these views suggests: "Man is created in the image and likeness of God, the focus of His work, interacting with others and the environment, equipped with superior intelligence, and constituted as a unit with itself... Continue reading "Philosophical, Religious, and Evolutionary Perspectives on Man" »