Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Logic and Argumentation

Aristotle and the Science of Logic

The creator of logic as a science was Aristotle.

Sophistry and Fallacies

Sophistry: False arguments

Fallacies: Look real but are falsehoods.

Steps for a Valid Argument

1. An argument needs two declarative sentences to be valid.
2. It must have two premises with a middle ground.
3. The average of the two premises must have the same meaning and extent in both.

Types of Arguments and Propositions

Aristotle identified different types of arguments and propositions:

• A: Universal, Affirmative: All human beings are rational.
• E: Universal, Negative: No talking dog.
• I: Particular, Affirmative: John is an architect.
• O: Particular, Negative: Juan does not laugh.

Conclusion Validity

The conclusion is not valid if at least... Continue reading "Logic, Arguments, and Freedom: An Exploration" »

1 Anthropological Argument

Religious Knowledge: Understanding the Human Experience

Religious knowledge delves into the complexity of the human experience. It clarifies the meaning and rationale behind human activities such as rituals, prayer, sacrifice, silence, and action. These activities constitute fundamental models of human behavior.

Historical Significance

In history, religious beliefs have had a significant impact. Understanding modern European history requires acknowledging the role of religious struggles throughout time.

Cultural Significance

Religious knowledge informs philosophical anthropology, highlighting the sacred as a universal dimension. The origins of culture are rooted in experiences and beliefs.

Intercultural Dialogue

Inter-religious... Continue reading "Religious Knowledge: A Humanistic Approach to Education" »

Critique of Pure Reason: Transcendental Dialectics

Transcendental Dialectical Reason. Pure Reason, at the beginning of the second part of the logic, states that the dialectic is the logic of illusion and delusion. Phenomena are different, but here it is transcendental illusion that occurs when reason goes beyond experience as a natural tendency. That's when reason falls into errors. We must discover and eliminate them. The field of science is limited to the experience of acting, so sensitive and understanding as knowledge sources. Reason is beset by questions that it cannot avoid, that it feels compelled to go beyond, a trend in its tendency produces unifying ideas. Similar to the sensitivity, reason comprehends sensible intuitions about how... Continue reading "Critique of Pure Reason: Transcendental Dialectics & Metaphysics" »

Ortega y Gasset himself repeatedly acknowledged the influences of Unamuno, especially regarding the cultural attitude needed to regenerate Spain, though they crossed swords in their feelings towards Europe and science.

Ortega was influenced by Nietzsche's vitalism and perspectivism, manifested in his defense of vital values, feelings, imagination, and the less rational dimensions of the person. However, while Nietzsche's vitalism could be seen as radical, Ortega did not understand life without its interconnection with reason.

Ortega found certain parallels in Husserl's phenomenology, such as intentionality in mental processes and the demand for philosophy to find a ground—a reality which is consciousness for Husserl and, for Ortega, life itself.... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset: Philosophical Influences and Legacy" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge

Descartes did not use the word itself as subjective-objective. What are the consequences of this? Scientists often view everything through the lens of objective investigation, focusing on goals and aspirations. Poets, on the other hand, embody wisdom through subjectivity.

Sentences involve an utterance and are formed by propositions. While words express concepts like fear, two sentences with different contents can convey an equally limited meaning.

A poet's expression is based on the enunciative sentence's content. It relies on the manner and content to express something limited. Conversely, we often desire more content when the expression itself is limited.

Types of Statements and Knowledge

Expressions (propositions)

Spanish Romantic Prose in the Early 19th Century

Although high-quality literary prose existed in Spain during the early 19th century, with notable exceptions like Larra, this period was crucial for the later emergence and consolidation of the realist novel. During the first decades of the 19th century, a publishing web was brewing, producing newspapers and books. This made not only the translation of novels profitable but also their original writing. Romantic prose developed late and hesitantly in Spain. The romantic prose genre itself was the historical novel, although other stories with romantic, sentimental, or horror content were also published. The serial novel significantly increased readership. It also conditioned the form and structure... Continue reading "Spanish Romantic Prose and Mariano José de Larra's Works" »

Between Good and Evil: Exploring Human Ethics

In animal life, the perpetuation of the species is ensured through ingenious mechanisms. However, humans yearn for something more: the perpetuation and spread of the unique. As Saint Augustine said, man represents a new beginning, a model defined by singularities. Hegel posited that thinking about life is the task, and valuing actions is the way to value life. Can we say there is a way of life?

We call 'art' the skillful practice in a particular field. Its general principles can be learned, but its highest levels of excellence lack precise rules and can only be admired in the exercise of outstanding individuals. Once learned, art is not yet fully mastered. The art of living, if we accept it, may be... Continue reading "Exploring Ethics: From Ancient Wisdom to Modern Concepts" »

Presocratic Philosophers and the Cosmos

Presocratic philosophers sought to explain the origin and constitution of the cosmos. They aimed to discover the principle (arche) of the universe, focusing on what they called 'naturaleza' (nature) rather than anthropomorphic deities. This marked the beginning of philosophy and science. The cosmos was naturalized, meaning nature became distinct from the 'divine' and 'sacred'.

What did 'physis' mean to these early philosophers? It represented the original matter from which everything is composed, the source and destination of all things, the organizing principle of reality, and the process of genesis and generation.

The Ionian School

Thales: He initiated the logical investigation of nature, asserting that... Continue reading "Presocratic Philosophers: Unveiling the Origins of Cosmos" »

Myth - Logos:

In the 6th century BC, a new set of ideas appeared in Greece. Rational thought emerged to explain the world, human beings, and their behavior. This challenged the power of mythological explanations, favoring explanations based on a new, rational method. This new method is characterized by:

• Having a critical attitude.
• Using criteria, principles, and logic when arguing.
• Justifying and providing arguments.

Relationship between Science and Philosophy:

Originally, philosophers were called "physicists," and their subject was Nature. While the forces of nature were personified, their performance was unpredictable and capricious. A clear example of the relationship between science and nature is that Democritus was a philosopher who defended... Continue reading "From Myth to Logos: Philosophy & Science Origins" »

Kant and Enlightenment: Key Concepts

The 18th century, the century of Enlightenment, was decisive for the history of the West. In this century, the concept of rationality and human questioning arose: What is man? Philosophers investigated the possibilities and limits of man. A set of improvements in politics and in the treatment of people occurred, preceding the French Revolution, as people fought for rights, freedoms, peace, justice, and tolerance. Immanuel Kant was an enlightened thinker who defended these precepts.

Born in Konigsberg (Germany) in 1724, within a humble family that professed German Protestant pietism, Kant held profound moral and religious values. He dedicated his life to studying and teaching. At the university, he became interested... Continue reading "Kant and Enlightenment: Key Concepts Explained" »