Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Jean Jacques Rousseau

1. Historical Context

It occurs in eighteenth century France, with the confrontation between the bourgeoisie and nobility that will lead to the French Revolution. Picture emerges as a movement to liberation and human happiness as a liberation movement to human happiness and progress through reason.

The reason is the instrument that enables human societies to adapt to the natural laws thus opening the field for searching and researching new social and cultural laws. The philosophy of research into new social and cultural laws. Rousseau's philosophy is that social order must be in accordance with the laws of nature.

2. Framework Sociocultural

Will come determined, in the field of arts and literature, the emergence of big names... Continue reading "Jean Jacques Rousseau: Enlightenment Philosopher and Social Reformer" »

Personal Rating of Mill's Utilitarianism

To develop the current philosophy of Utilitarianism, Mill can be used as a reference. The sentence, "It is better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied," shows that Mill prefers to choose intellectual pleasures over sensual ones. This choice is because Mill establishes a hierarchy of pleasures. First, we have sensible pleasures, which are based on satisfaction, in contrast to intellectual pleasures, which are based on happiness.

In making this assertion, Mill believes the state also plays an important role. We start from the basis that the state must strengthen the happiness of the individual through external sanctions. External sanctions can be physical and psychological. Internal sanctions... Continue reading "John Stuart Mill's Utilitarianism: Happiness and Pleasure" »

Plato's Republic and Socrates' Philosophy

In Plato's Republic, Socrates is portrayed as a proponent of egalitarian principles, although the historical Socrates' stance on democracy is complex. Plato's dialogues often depict Socrates advocating for justice and individual rights. However, Plato himself, through the character of Socrates, expresses a preference for a structured society.

Socrates believed in individual freedom and critical thinking, while Plato favored a hierarchical society with distinct classes, led by philosopher-kings. Socrates famously stated, "I know that I know nothing," emphasizing humility and the pursuit of knowledge. He championed individual action and ethical conduct, independent of societal norms. In contrast, Plato... Continue reading "Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle: Ancient Greek Philosophy" »

The comment text can be made to distinguish the rules of the method, so we can say that for Descartes, the method is the set of "rules certain and easy, thanks to whom that will not ever look exactly the false for real and reach, without spending unnecessarily effort of the mind, but science always gradually increasing, the true knowledge of anything that is capable of." The method should serve to discover new truths, not to prove what has already been found. The four rules of method are:

• Evidence: The Criterion of Truth

  Do not accept anything as true unless we know with evidence that it is. The evidence consists of clarity and distinction. We must avoid two fundamental defects in the search for truth: precipitation and prevention.

  • Precipitation:

Epistemology

Your project needs, as a starting point, a real, universal, and objective knowledge (Episteme), which underpins universal ethical concepts. Humans can achieve universal knowledge, valid, stable, and objective (Episteme), to follow a sound basis for knowing this knowledge ethically in its practical, individual, and socio-political aspects, and for the world. For him, true knowledge should inform the stable and permanent, free of change. And this can only be offered by Reason, using a rigorous and systematic method to search within oneself. Developing such concepts would only be possible if one accepted the existence of objective realities that correspond to these concepts, and to give them the characteristics of stability, universality,... Continue reading "Epistemology: Achieving Universal Knowledge" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Philosophers: Denying Evolution

Rejecting Sensory Experience

Philosophers deny evolution and refuse the testimony of the senses, viewing them as deceptive. They deny the body and embrace the immaterial, focusing on concepts like God.

Heraclitus vs. Parmenides

Nietzsche admires Heraclitus's focus on evolution and criticizes Parmenides's commitment to being and reason. He argues that Heraclitus correctly rejects Parmenidean being but, like Parmenides, misinterprets sensory experience by positing a hidden order (logos), maintaining the distinction between essence and appearance. We believe our senses lie because we interpret them through reason.

Embracing Sensory Experience

Nietzsche praises the senses, particularly smell, as... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Philosophy: Embracing Becoming Over Being" »

St. Thomas Aquinas' Anthropological Theory of the Middle Ages

**Life and Works of St. Thomas Aquinas**

St. Thomas Aquinas was a Christian theologian, the main representative of the scholastic tradition, and founder of the Thomist school of theology and philosophy. He wrote numerous works, among which are his commentary on Aristotle's thought and theological works such as Summa Theologica, Summa Contra Gentiles, and De Ente et Essentia.

**The Conception of Man in St. Thomas Aquinas**

The conception of man in St. Thomas is based on Aristotle's conception. But, as with the other aspects of his thought, it must be reconciled with the basic beliefs of Christianity: the immortality of the soul and creation. The human being is a substance composed of... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas' Anthropological Theory: Soul and Body" »

Technical vs. Practical Rationality

1 - The concept of technical rationality:

a) Animal behavior adaptation to the drive for survival can be considered an example of technical rationality to the extent that it is a skill used to achieve a certain purpose. Humans use this kind of rationale for self-preservation or self-assertion, to obtain benefits or follow dictates of vanity.

b) When humans apply this kind of rationality, it's about controlling power over our environment, external nature, or other humans. To the extent that we use something as a means to our ends, we objectify it, even a subject, i.e., a person. That is why technical rationality is strategic or instrumental and is guided by criteria such as efficiency, economy (media and effort)... Continue reading "Technical vs. Practical Rationality: Concepts & Applications" »

Kant's Practical Reason: Bridging Morality and Metaphysics

Transcendental Idealism, as proposed by Immanuel Kant, rejects the possibility of metaphysical knowledge (concerning God, the soul, freedom, etc.) through intellectual, scientific means. Scientific knowledge, for Kant, is limited to the phenomenal reality. However, Kant identifies one profound experience that can connect us to the metaphysical: the moral experience.

The Postulates of Practical Reason

This connection arises from the so-called Postulates of Practical Reason. These are fundamental propositions that cannot be proven by theoretical reason but must be admitted to understand the "moral factum" (the undeniable fact of morality). These postulates specifically concern:

• The existence