Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Wittgenstein's Philosophy: Language and Ethics

The Role of Philosophy in the *Tractatus* and *Philosophical Investigations*

According to Wittgenstein, philosophy encourages the clarification of propositions and aims to avoid misleading forms of common language. It is not a science; philosophical propositions, being meaningless, are created by the misunderstanding of language. The method is to "say nothing except what can be said, and whenever someone would say something metaphysical, to demonstrate that he has not given meaning to certain signs." These statements are meaningless as they attempt to exceed the limits of language and the world, and nothing can be said about the world in its entirety. Silence on this field sets the stage for the... Continue reading "Wittgenstein's Philosophy: Ethics and Language Analysis" »

The Superman (Übermensch)

Nietzsche seeks a higher type of man—the genius of the free spirit, the Übermensch (Superman). To cultivate this type of man, one must perform the transmutation of all moral values. The starting point of this criticism is based on the enlightened, but Nietzsche argues even against the claims of those whom he accuses of defending old Christian values. This concept is the central theme of Nietzsche's work, pointing toward the future hero, the philosopher to come.

However, before this superior man arrives, preparation is necessary: establishing values and ways of living that make the creation of new values possible and, crucially, preventing the destruction that might accompany his arrival.

Prefigurations of the Superman

Three... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Superman: Transmutation of Values and the Future Hero" »

Descartes' Proof of God's Existence

Once certain of one's existence as a thinking being, Descartes proceeds to the second major step of his metaphysics: the proof of the existence of God. It is crucial to understand that merely possessing the idea of an infinite substance does not automatically mean God exists; it only signifies our comprehension of the idea of absolute perfection.

Human reason, by its very nature, is not perfect, as evidenced by doubt and hesitation. A defect is not characteristic of a perfect entity. If we are imperfect creatures, how then could we possess a perfect idea, such as the idea of God?

Levels of Existence in Descartes' Philosophy

Before delving into the proof of God's existence, it is important to note that Descartes... Continue reading "Descartes' Metaphysics: Proving God's Existence" »

The Dawn of Modernity: A Philosophical Shift

The modern era, beginning in the Renaissance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and culminating in the Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment, marked a significant departure from traditional thought. Modernity is characterized by the decline of the Christian conception of the world. Modern philosophy developed a series of ideas and concepts that were incompatible with Christian thought. The idea of modernity is fundamentally an idea of progress, whereas Christianity is rooted in the idea of humanity. Enlightenment philosophers believed that history was a march towards the realization of an increasingly rational and infinite life.

Reason: A Cornerstone of Modern Thought

Reason emerged as a key idea... Continue reading "Foundations of Modern Philosophy: From Descartes to Kant" »

Fundamental Values and Societal Harmony

• The value of life
• Duties to the community
• Power and its exercise
• The citizen and the weak
• The afterlife, death, and gods
• Ways of resolving conflicts
• Property, its ownership, and distribution
• Sexuality, procreation, and family
• Dealing with foreigners and differences

Assessing solutions: Human beings need to know the best solutions, which better respect the fundamental values of humanity and can provide a more just social reality.

• Morality: It is the system of rules governing coexistence in a society. There are many moral and cultural systems.
• Ethics: It is the part of philosophy that reflects on these issues and tries to rationally develop a universal morality, valid for all cultures.

The Search for Optimal Solutions

The... Continue reading "Ethical Problem-Solving: Universal Moral Principles" »

Dissatisfaction with Traditional Teachings

Descartes expressed dissatisfaction with the teachings at La Flèche, including scholastic philosophy and Aristotelian science. He sought a more solid foundation for philosophy, a criterion to distinguish true knowledge from falsehood. This criterion, he believed, could be found in non-traditional thinking, specifically the mathematical model of analytical geometry.

Analytical Geometry

Descartes believed that if algebra could solve geometric problems, a general method could be found to solve problems in any science. One of his philosophical objectives was to find this universal method for attaining truth.

The Tree of Philosophy

Descartes saw no distinction between scientific and philosophical knowledge,... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: A Method for Truth" »

The Conditions of Possibility of Science

The problem is, can metaphysics become a science? It would require that metaphysics fulfill the same conditions that both existing sciences, mathematics and physics, meet. For a trial to be regarded as scientific, it must meet two conditions: increasing our knowledge and possessing necessary and universal validity. A trial to increase our knowledge has to be a synthetic view, and the character of necessity and universality could not come from experience. Experience only provides contingent truths of fact and individuals. That is, the necessity and universality of a trial can only be established outside of experience, or a priori. In conclusion, scientific judgments must be synthetic a priori judgments.... Continue reading "Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Conditions of Science" »

Nietzsche's Critique: Master Morality and the Death of God

Friedrich Nietzsche identifies two types of men and corresponding moralities:

• Gentlemen: In which active forces are imposed on the reactive. They possess natural moral values that promote life.
• Slaves: The opposite case. They possess a moral resentment opposing values to life.

Before Socrates, culture was Dionysian and possessed an aristocratic morality. But since Plato and Christianity, morality has become Apollonian, where slaves were led to believe the gentlemen that their values are defects. European culture is a nihilist culture, hating values that support life. As a result, God is dead; there are no spiritual values respected by society.

Christianity, Nietzsche argues, rejects all... Continue reading "Nietzsche and Marx: Critiques of Religion and Morality" »