Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Aristotle's Logic

3. Logic. Aristotle is credited with creating logic as a tool for scientific inquiry. He demonstrated that in science, problems are resolved by navigating between the singular and the multiple, the universal and the particular.

The syllogism expresses a relationship that illustrates how the universal applies to the particular. For example: "Every man is mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

• Induction (Inverse Process): If we know all particular cases and arrive at a general conclusion, the induction is complete. Example: Men, horses, and mules live long, and they are animals without gallbladders; therefore, animals without gallbladders are long-lived.

We possess scientific knowledge if we know: that something... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics and Logic: Understanding Being" »

Human Evolution and the Transition to Bipedalism

1. Environmental Adaptation:

• Forests disappearing due to climate change.
• Selection pressure on arboreal primates.
• Selecting the most suitable individuals for a terrestrial environment.

2. Physical and Cognitive Development:

• Adoption of bipedalism, resulting in hands-free movement.
• Consolidated bipedalism.
• Evolution of the hand and increasing skull volume.
• Brain growth and increased manual dexterity.

3. Technological and Social Progress:

• Manufacturing of the first tools.
• Discovery of the art of fire.
• Making more elaborate and useful implements.
• Improved diet through cooked food.
• Intense socialization and learning.
• Neoteny (extended childhood).
• Articulate speech and symbolism.

Defining Culture: Pedagogical and Anthropological

4.

The Nature of Existence and Tangible Property

Things that have an actual existence are those that are mandatory for the senses and the mind. This includes tangible things such as solids, liquids, and vapors.

Understanding Personal Wealth and Heritage

From the concept of personal wealth, we postulate that people have only heritage. Wealth is considered an attribute of personality and is composed of all heritage assets, which include:

• Assets and rights (positive value)
• Liabilities (loads or obligations)

When Livestock Becomes Real Estate

Herds, flocks, and other livestock (both tame and wild) are classified as real estate when they are not separated from their pastures and farms.

Classification of Assets: Divisible and Indivisible

The difference between... Continue reading "Legal Classification of Property and Asset Heritage" »

The Dawn of Writing

Writing in Mesopotamia emerged around 4000 BCE and represents the emergence of tools used to control the state (politically and socially) and the birth of urban economies. As a technique, it also represents a break from the previous world, which was based on the spoken word—the oral world. Writing is thus a revolutionary instrument in the world of thought and in its successive stages of consolidation. Writing was also initiated in Egypt and other Near Eastern civilizations in ancient history.

The Birth of Philosophy in Greece

Philosophy did not always exist. Its birth is usually located in ancient Greece, dating to the seventh century BCE. Philosophy is not, and cannot be, a direct and immediate knowledge of all reality,... Continue reading "The Ancient Origins of Writing and Western Philosophy" »

Discourse on Method, Part IV: Commentary

Author: René Descartes

Historical Context and Setting

Descartes was in France, often associated with the Jesuits, during a period of significant transition. National monarchies and empires were rising, and a new economic form, capitalism (later criticized by Marxism), was emerging. Two key intellectual events influenced this work: anthropocentrism (Descartes writing in the first person) and the Scientific Revolution.

Central Theme and Philosophical Problem

The central problem is the search for a first, undeniable truth (axiom) that can serve as a starting point for a secure and universal philosophy. This search establishes existence by finding the subject as a thinking substance, or res cogitans.

Key Philosophical

Kantian Ethics: What Should I Do?

Kant aimed to create an ethic of universal validity, applicable to all people at all times, and autonomous, independent of external factors like religion. He criticized previous ethical systems as being material and teleological, focused on achieving specific ends like happiness or salvation. Kant proposed a formal ethic, emphasizing the form or mode of action rather than the outcome.

The will, the power of man involved in the action, is central to Kant's ethics. Only the will or intention behind an action can be judged. While only the individual knows their own intention (autonomy), an action done out of duty must be applicable universally. The guiding principle for actions and intentions is the categorical... Continue reading "Kantian Ethics: Duty, Reason, and the Categorical Imperative" »

Employment Contract Amendments

Amendment: Alteration of the services or conditions agreed in the contract.

Amendments can be:

• Functional
• Geographical
• Substantive

Functional Mobility

Functional: The worker assumes roles different from those originally agreed upon.

Geographical Changes

Geographic: Occurs when changing the workplace requires the employee to change residence.

Temporary Deployment

Temporary change of workplace and residence.

• Period: Up to 12 months within 3 years.
• If longer than 3 months, five days' advance notice is required.

Definitive Move

Permanent or long-term change of a workplace and residence.

• Period: Up to 12 months within 3 years.

Substantial Changes

Substantive: Relates to the basic elements of the employment contract.

Substantial changes

Descartes' Quest for Certainty

René Descartes addressed the insecurity and confusion of his era by proposing a rational response rooted in the thinking and existing "I," establishing a foundation of certainty.

Philosophical Context of the 17th Century

1. The Shifting Concept of Truth

   The 17th century witnessed a profound gnoseological shift in modernity, redefining the concept of truth and knowledge. The possibility of achieving rigorous knowledge emerged, yet empiricists affirmed that we only perceive representations and images of truth. Consequently, the nature of truth became a highly contested theme.

2. The Pursuit of Method

   The attainment of truth necessitated a strong concern for method. This method had to facilitate progress and advancement. The

Text: Characteristics and Properties

Defining Text and Communication

A text is a meaningful unit of communication, whether oral or written, produced with a specific intent in certain circumstances. It functions as a complete and coherent message between participants.

Factors of the Communicative Situation

Several factors must be considered within a communicative situation:

• Relationship Between Participants

  This is determined by social and cultural mechanisms governing interactions, such as gender and socio-cultural level. Communicative competence refers to the issuer's ability to select appropriate registers for each speech act. The issuer must choose a suitable register (formal or informal).

• Communicative Intention

  This factor determines the text'