Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Truth in Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine overcame skepticism. He argued that even if humans are prone to error, this does not imply the absolute negation of truth. His argument analyzes human error. The error reveals a primary truth: if I am mistaken, I exist.

Knowledge of the Truth

Saint Augustine's path to the knowledge of truth involves:

• Rejection of the senses: Sensory experiences cannot reveal truth because they are contingent, not absolute.
• Internalization: Only through the internalization of the soul can one know absolute truth and wisdom.
• Epistemological Significance: The soul contains objects of a higher nature. Therefore, the soul must seek the light and the foundation of truth outside itself. Saint Augustine states, "If you find that your

Marx vs. Hegel: The Human Being

In the first stage of Marx's philosophy, he confronts general idealistic philosophy and Hegel's philosophy in particular. Hegel's philosophy, Marx argues, has sanctioned or endorsed the liberal state as the guarantor of human freedom and progress. Marx believes that Hegel has forgotten the real, concrete human being, speculating instead on an abstraction that has little to do with real existence.

Capitalist Accumulation & Surplus Value

How does the capitalist order achieve progressive enrichment or capital accumulation? As the owner of the means of production, the capitalist's goal is to accumulate capital through the exchange of goods for profit. The way to achieve this is to appropriate a share of the value... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Marx's Philosophy" »

Empiricism

Experience is the origin of knowledge. We cannot definitively know metaphysical objects (God, self, external world) and consider them scientific, as we haven't perceived them as reality. Evidence is the sole criterion for distinguishing truth from falsehood.

Kantianism

Aesthetics and Transcendentalism

Knowledge requires a union of a priori and a posteriori elements. Matter is content, while form is how we perceive it. Cognition arises from the interaction of sensibility and understanding.

Analytics

Once phenomena are created by sensibility, understanding can know the object through categories. We can make judgments based on quantity, quality, relation, and modality.

Ethics

Ethics are a priori. There are two types of wills: natural (governed... Continue reading "Philosophical Schools of Thought: Empiricism, Kantianism, Utilitarianism" »

Unnatural Morality

Unnatural morality, according to Nietzsche, is a morality of the weak and embittered, directed against the vitality of the body and its passions. It posits a superior "world of reality" whose attainment requires sacrifice in this life. Unnatural morality emerges in opposition to natural morality, which is the morality of the strong, based on the will to power and an appreciation of this life. Any morality that requires sacrifice and mortification in this life for the sake of another life beyond is deemed unnatural.

Transmutation of Values

Transmutation of values: Nietzsche does not propose living without values, believing that to be impossible. Instead, he invites us to overturn the existing table of values. This involves overcoming... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Unnatural Morality and Transmutation of Values" »

The Need to Demonstrate the Existence of God

Thomas Aquinas posited the need for a demonstration of the existence of God. According to some opinions, such as those of Saint Anselm, such a demonstration is unnecessary since the existence of God is clear and evident, and only what is not clear and evident needs proof. However, Thomas Aquinas's opinion differs. According to him, a demonstration of the existence of God is necessary precisely because it is not self-evident that God exists.

To explain this statement, Aquinas distinguishes between two types of self-evident propositions:

• a) Propositions self-evident to us (humans): Where we know the subject and predicate and immediately conclude that the predicate is included in the subject. For example,

Family Rights and Social Order

It is against natural law for any human to remove the primary right to marry, or to restrict the main purpose of marriage established by God: "Be fruitful and multiply".

The family, though small, is a true partnership, older than any other, with its own rights and duties, independent of civil power. Ownership rights conferred by nature are transferred to the man as head of the family, and this right is stronger as a person in society encompasses more domestic responsibility.

The rights and duties of the family are prior and more natural than those of civil society. If public authorities harm families instead of helping them, society would be worthy of condemnation.

It is a great error for civil power to arbitrarily... Continue reading "Family Rights and Social Order: A Natural Law Perspective" »

Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans (570-497 BC)

Pythagoras was born on the island of Samos, Ionia. He later moved to Greece, where he founded his philosophical sect. Influenced by Eastern disciplines, such as Zoroastrianism, he became very famous and was considered a legend, even the son of Apollo. His doctrine reflected on the body and soul, believing the soul to be immortal and imprisoned by the body. The Pythagoreans also believed in reincarnation. Central to their philosophy was the liberation of the soul through spiritual work, which included philosophy, mathematics, and music, to create harmony and regularity in man. They posited the existence of fundamental principles underlying the concrete and changing world. Pythagorean thought heavily... Continue reading "Pre-Socratic Philosophy: From Myth to Reason" »

Nietzsche's Superman

The Dionysian Influence

The Dionysian excess and tragic longing permeates Nietzsche's view of humanity. As he states in Beyond Good and Evil, "Man must be educated for war, and woman for the rest of the warrior. All else is madness." Nietzsche's anthropological reflection, while varied, consistently distinguishes between ordinary individuals and great individuals.

Free Spirits vs. Supermen

In Human, All Too Human, Nietzsche refers to distinguished individuals as "free spirits." These individuals are detached and adaptable, capable of embracing new perspectives and actions. They stand in contrast to "free thinkers," the Enlightenment figures of the 18th century who fought against the feudal regime and advocated for egalitarianism.... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Superman: A Philosophical Examination" »

Current Rating of the Text

The utopia of the ideal state in Plato's Republic introduces valuable principles, some of which seem lost today:

• The rule of reason
• Concern for the public good to ensure responsible governance, not interested in personal use of the position (a stance against corruption seen in other political systems)
• The importance of education for both rulers and citizens
• Government involvement in the happiness of citizens
• The equality of women relative to men

However, we also find reprehensible aspects, taking into account the risks of this totalitarian system. If everything is driven by power, such as private property and the family (spouse and children), and considering issues of interest in the educational program, we seem to be overriding... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Reason, Governance, and the Ideal State" »

Philosophical Concepts

Observational Consequences

Consequences derived from a general law, which may not be universally agreed upon by all observers.

Practical Philosophy

The branch of philosophy that reflects on human action.

Socialization

The process through which individuals learn and prepare to live according to social norms.

Freedom

The state of an act not being dictated by an external entity or individual.

Disclaimer

Providing a rationale for an act or event as its author.

Institution

A human group organization recognized by law and custom.

Device

A small-scale institution where specific types of subjectivity are created through practical actions and discourse.

Subject

A being capable of maintaining a relationship with the external world.

Moral

Derived... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Philosophy and Social Sciences" »