Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Evolutionary Theories and Concepts

Fixism and Evolution

Fixism posits that all species are independent and remain unchanged over time since their creation. In contrast, Evolution is the theory that the universe and all manifestations of life are the product of diverse development. Species diversity is the result of change and adaptation.

Early Evolutionary Thought: Transformism

Transformism (17th century) suggests the appearance of new species due to the transformation of primitive ones.

Lamarckism: The First Comprehensive Theory

Lamarckism is recognized as the first comprehensive theory of biological evolution. It defends a gradual progression from simple organisms to more complex ones. Changes, according to Lamarck, occur to adapt to the environment,... Continue reading "Evolutionary Theories and Human Social Thought" »

EM Parables: Storytelling in Education

Parables (stories told) are an excellent educational tool. They suggest rather than impose. Stories and practical actions are better guides than rigid rules. Principles and empirical evidence support this approach.

Partial MS Approaches: Dilemmas and Narratives

1. Dilemmas focus on problem-solving, not character description. The protagonist's virtues are fundamental. The goal is finding a solution, not detailed descriptions.

2. Dilemmas demonstrate social characteristics.

3. Dilemmas are open-ended. Each person decides the conclusion.

In stories versus dilemmas, adults convey a judged narrative.

Contrarily, non-directive education posits that adults should not impose values. "Every child is a moral philosopher... Continue reading "Moral Education: Methods, Dilemmas, and Storytelling" »

Transcendental Aesthetic

The term 'aesthetic' is Greek and means sensation. The term 'sensitivity' is often used in philosophy to describe the ability to receive sensations. Kant defined sensitivity as the ability of the subject to be affected by external realities; through sensitivity, the aforementioned objects are given to us. Sensitivity is the first step of all knowledge because only through it is our knowledge related immediately to the actual exterior. Sensations are given *a posteriori* and are the signals that meet at sensitivity. We do not receive raw feelings, but these are presented as ordered in certain relations. That is, how sensations appear is already an *a priori* form in the spirit. Kant also called this pure intuition, reserving... Continue reading "Transcendental Aesthetic and Dialectic in Kantian Philosophy" »

Aristotle's Critique of Plato's Ideas

Aristotle critiques Plato's Theory of Ideas. Aristotle focuses his philosophy on the sensible world. Plato believed the world of ideas is the true reality, and the world that surrounds us is merely an imperfect copy of those ideas. Aristotle initially agreed with this doctrine but later developed doubts, which eventually turned into strong criticism and rejection.

There are three main criticisms:

1. First, if the sensible, material world around us is an imperfect copy of the ideas, then logically everything that exists must have a perfect model. This would imply a 'perfect model of evil.' Aristotle argues we cannot accept that everything negative and bad in the world has a perfect counterpart in the world of

Government and Society: The Perfect State

The State: The state is a perfect society that has all the means to achieve its goal, and it is necessary for defense, peace, economics, etc. The church is a society superior to the state and must be subjected to it, as this does not prevent achieving an end.

The Individual: In relations between the individual and the state, all sorts of things are kept, and since the individual is part of the state, laws should be ordered to the common good. Man is not simply a member of the state but a human being who must tend toward the supernatural end. The state's sovereignty is not absolute but is limited.

• By Natural Law: The sovereign has to legislate, apply, and define natural law, because natural precepts are

Sophists: Common Features

The Sophists were a group of educators from 5th century BC Athens who taught young people various arts, finance, law, and linguistics for a fee. They possessed great eloquence and were masters of language. This, combined with their broad understanding of laws and societies, prevented them from forming unified schools of thought. While each Sophist had unique ideas, they shared common traits:

• Experts in education and language instruction.
• Great speakers.
• Skeptical, ranging from moderate to radical.
• Advocates of relativism due to their skepticism.
• Agnostic regarding religion.
• Believers that societies should be governed by positive laws based on human will, not unknowable natural law.

Physis and Nomos: Socrates and the Sophists

In... Continue reading "Sophists & Socrates: Physis vs. Nomos in Ancient Athens" »

Nietzsche's Core Philosophical Concepts

The Problem of "Egyptianism" in Philosophy

The term "Egyptianism" (or a similar concept in Nietzsche's thought) refers to a philosophical tendency that defines a certain quality among Western philosophers and the historical spirit. It is characterized by a failure to grasp genuine historical understanding and a reliance on fixed, rather than useful, sources of moral values. This approach, which reflects a static notion of becoming, ultimately leads philosophy to develop empty concepts.

The Primacy of the Senses

For Nietzsche, the senses provide us with immediate and individual knowledge. This is the basic form of all knowledge, supplied by both our internal and external perceptual systems. The senses, in... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Essential Concepts" »

Descartes' Discourse on Method

Descartes' Discourse on Method aimed to develop objective metaphysics. After the new science, metaphysical sciences did not evolve. Metaphysical roots support physical science. Mathematics is an introduction to metaphysics.

Deductive Method in Metaphysics

1. Criteria of certainty
2. Analysis
3. Synthesis
4. Revision and enumeration

Methodical Doubt

Methodical doubt involves looking for clear and distinct ideas. Sources of doubt include:

1. The senses
2. Wakefulness and sleep
3. The evil genius

Acquired, Artificial, and Innate Ideas

1. Acquired ideas: Thinking substance (outside world)
2. Artificial ideas: Human invention
3. Innate ideas: Not from my reality, but of foreign origin or infinite perfection, i.e., God.

Infinite perfection substance is not deceiving.... Continue reading "Descartes' Method: Metaphysics and Dualism" »

Sophists vs. Socrates: A Philosophical Comparison

Sophists

Main Features

• Itinerant teachers, often metics (non-Athenian Greeks).
• Offered encyclopedic knowledge.
• Charged fees for their teaching.

Thought and Philosophy

• Lack of interest in cosmology; strong interest in man and politics.
• Emphasized the importance of language, rhetoric, oratory, and eristic (argumentation).
• Arete (virtue) understood as social success.
• Often atheists or agnostics.
• Nomos: Law understood as a convention.
• Relativism (doctrine that human knowledge only seeks relationships, without ever reaching the absolute).
• Skepticism (mistrust or doubt regarding truth or effectiveness).
• Conventionalism (views or procedures based on misconceptions, taken as true for comfort or convenience).

Methodology

• Claimed

Understanding Moral Reasoning

The Moral Practical Reason for Moral Action: Essentially, human behavior (conscious and free), controlled by values and rules (expressions of such values) that allow us to distinguish between morally good and bad.

Conscience and Moral Awareness

Conscience: Awareness is the ability to move humans to notice something.

Moral Science and Principles

Moral Science: The ability of practical reason to capture the moral principles which can distinguish between morally good and bad. The individual must be aware of the following elements:

• The Reasons: Impel us to act in one way or another.
• The Purpose: To want to achieve and moves the will.
• Means: To be used for the end result.
• The Result: The achievement of the end pursued.

Piaget