Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Life as Radical Being-in-the-World

For Ortega y Gasset, life is not merely existence, but coexistence with the world. He uses reason to understand our experiences and find meaning in life. Ortega y Gasset summarizes the sense of life as follows:

1. Life is radical being.
2. To live is to find oneself in the world.
3. Living involves taking care of something.
4. Life is a continuous chore.
5. Life is a problem.
6. Living is being found.
7. Life is coexistence and cohabitation.

These categories of life are vital. Life is a continuous becoming. As Ortega y Gasset says, "man is not nature but history."

Man in Time and the Mission of Our Times

Man lives in a given time, and the task of our times is always a mission. Every era has its own way of life and its own tempo. Generations... Continue reading "José Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy of Life and Times" »

Plato, Aristotle, and Kant: Political Society and Human Development

Shared Perspective: The Necessity of Political Society

• All three philosophers agree that political society is essential for integral human development. For them, man only becomes fully human within a political society or the State.

Key Differences in Political Philosophy

1. Origin and Nature of the State

• Greek Thought (Plato, Aristotle): Man is inherently a social and political animal. Society is considered natural, responding to human nature.
• Modern Thought (Kant): The State originates from an agreement or arrangement among individuals.

2. The Ultimate Purpose of the State

• Greek Thought: The primary end of the State is ethical.
  • Plato: To cultivate just and virtuous citizens. Only within

Foundations of Scientific Knowledge

Science as a Collective Effort

Science is inherently a collective effort, not an individual pursuit. Progress is only possible through the collaboration and control of the scientific community. It is essential to publish results and experimental data so that other scientists can replicate the work and test the findings. This process prevents fraud and ensures validity. Furthermore, the scientific community has an obligation to ensure effective access to scientific knowledge.

Steps of the Scientific Method

The scientific method can be summarized in the following steps:

1. Identify and clarify the problem, formulating it as a specific question.
2. Formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment to confirm the prediction.

The Categorical Imperative Is the expression of the moral law and is a criterion for the correction of our actions, a criterion to determine if actions coincide with what we do. The practical principles are general rules that depend on the number of practical rules. The maxim is the principle that is actually the first and inspires my behavior. The imperatives are principles or laws requiring us to act rationally and are divided into assumptions or conditions (acting as a means to an end and conditional orders) and categories (acting as good in itself, and ordered as an end unconditionally). The categorical imperative is the supreme principle of morality. The highest moral value must be universal. The moral imperative states, "You must act... Continue reading "Understanding the Categorical Imperative in Ethics" »

Plato's Anthropology

For Plato, the soul (psyche) is the principle of life in the body, an element opposite to embodiment. The soul is immortal and belongs to the intelligible world, while the body is mortal and belongs to the sensible world. The body attracts desires, and one can liberate themselves from these bonds through philosophy.

Drawing on Orphic and Pythagorean influences, Plato defends the soul's immortality and its transmigration from one body to another. In the dialogue Phaedrus, he explains the nature of the soul using the famous myth of the winged chariot. A charioteer drives a carriage with two horses: one is good and beautiful, the other is not. The less noble horse is attracted to the material world and destabilizes the carriage,... Continue reading "Plato's Anthropology and Ontology: Soul, Body, and Ideas" »

Transcendental Conditions

Transcendental conditions are universal, necessary, and not derived from experience. They are a priori structures, though they remain empty without experience.

Knowledge derived from experience is always a synthesis, established a priori. The subject acquires a key role in knowledge, imposing its conditions.

Analysis of the Authority of Knowledge

The Transcendental Aesthetic: Sensitivity

The Transcendental Aesthetic, part of the Critique of Pure Reason, studies sensitivity, which results in sensations. There is internal sensitivity and external sensitivity.

Sensitive knowledge involves two elements:

1. The Sensations: These are empirical elements, resulting from the influence of objects on the power of knowledge.
2. A Priori Forms

Plato's Ethical Framework: The Tripartite Soul

Plato's concept of 'the Good' is intrinsically linked to a hierarchical structure. This concept represents true reality and the essence of things, serving as the ultimate guide for our conduct. The objective of ethics, according to Plato, is to align our lives with 'the Good'.

Functions of the Soul's Parts

Plato posits that the human soul is composed of three distinct parts, each with its own function:

• The Rational Soul: Possesses the knowledge of true reality. It fulfills its function when it is prudent and wise, capable of discerning what is good and what is detrimental.
• The Irascible Soul: Must fulfill its role as an assistant, helping the rational soul impose its designs upon the concupiscible soul.

Argument

An argument is offered from the subjective viewpoint of an issuer on a topic. Its purpose is to influence and convince the receiver of the validity of its reasoning, thus dominating the conative or appellative function.

To persuade the receiver, the sender selects arguments, reasons, and evidence supporting their opinion. Objections to opposing arguments, called counterarguments, can also be used.

Elements and Structure of Argumentative Text

Argumentative texts have a logical and orderly structure. They are organized around a main idea developed in the body of the argument and end with a conclusion.

• Thesis

  It is the main idea around which the text is organized. The location of the thesis determines the structure of the argumentative text.

Utilitarianism: Happiness and the Common Good

Utilitarianism, closely related to ethical theories like eudaimonia and hedonism, defends the human purpose of happiness or pleasure. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) considered that actions and regulations should be judged by the Principle of Utility, or the Principle of Greatest Happiness. This is a teleological ethics, valuing actions as a means to an end, based on the consequences that result from them: an action is good when its consequences are useful (bringing us closer to happiness), and it is not bad if its implications do not take us away from happiness or pleasure. The principle of morality is, therefore, the greatest happiness (pleasure) for as many living beings as possible.

According to... Continue reading "Major Ethical Frameworks: Mill, Kant, Habermas" »

The Etymology and Definition of Philosophy

Philosophy derives from the Greek words: Philo (love) and Sophia (wisdom). Its origin lies in the inherent trend, by the nature of man, to know (intellectual curiosity). There is in man the need to understand and explain the world and its phenomena.

Characteristics of Philosophy

1. It defines philosophy as the knowledge seeking the beginning of things.
2. The questioning of philosophy tends to immerse man in fears and anxieties.
3. It is considered a science because it is the most universal science that can exist, studying both material and spiritual beings.
4. Using philosophy, humanity reaffirms its existence as a rational being, distinct from things and animals.
5. Due to the many questions philosophy addresses, it has