Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

René Descartes: Foundations of Modern Philosophy

Descartes' Theory of Knowledge

René Descartes, often regarded as the founder of modern philosophy, posited that reason is the sole source of true knowledge. His philosophical journey began with an analysis of how to acquire knowledge reliably. He distinguished between two primary types of knowledge:

• Intuition: The immediate, clear, and distinct apprehension of simple ideas that emerge directly from reason.
• Deduction: The process of arriving at complex truths and judgments through a succession of insights and logical connections made between simple ideas by reason.

To systematically pursue truth, Descartes proposed a rigorous method, which implicitly involves several steps. While the original text... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Reason, Doubt, and Reality" »

MAIN LINES OF THOUGHT OF HUME

Empiricism

Hume is the most representative philosopher of this movement, which posits that all knowledge comes from experience.

Epistemology

Hume denies the existence of innate ideas; the only elements of reasoning are ideas and impressions. There are two types of reasoning: a priori and a posteriori. The principle of causality states that a particular cause always and necessarily produces a particular effect.

Metaphysics

Hume criticizes the three Cartesian substances (the self, external reality, and God), denying the claim of the existence of the self and asserting that we cannot ensure God's existence.

Ethics

Hume argues that morality is based on moral sentiment and defends moral emotivism.

Problem of Knowledge

All our... Continue reading "Hume's Philosophy: Empiricism, Causality, and the Self" »

Radical Separation of Law and Morality

Radical separation is a thesis opposed to the previous one. It states that we cannot speak of a connection between law and morality because no such connection exists. This position is based on the idea that the criteria used to classify a behavior as moral or immoral are independent of the criteria used to classify it as legal or illegal.

An example of this position is found in Kelsen's work. His argument for this separation is based on two philosophical theses:

• Moral Relativism: Kelsen believes that all moral values are relative.
• Conception of Rationality and Legal Science: Kelsen is committed to developing a pure theory of law.

By moral relativism, Kelsen means that when we describe or evaluate something... Continue reading "Law and Morality: Separation and Connection" »

The Story of King David and Nathan

The story begins with King David sending his men to devastate the region of the Ammonites and besiege Rabbah. One day, while he stayed in Jerusalem, he met a beautiful woman named Bathsheba and sent to inquire after her. David ordered her brought to him, and they lay together, resulting in her pregnancy. Since Bathsheba's husband, Uriah, was away, David decided to place him on the front lines of the battle. Uriah was wounded and died, along with several other officers.

Five Human Needs

The five human needs are:

1. Physiological: These needs pertain to the basic requirements of our condition as living beings.
2. Safety: This is the need to feel safe from dangers and threats in a potentially hostile world.
3. Acceptance and

Census Suffrage and Restricted Suffrage

If suffrage means the ability to participate in electing political representatives, then restricted suffrage is the limitation of this right due to failing to meet required conditions. Census suffrage refers to the economic conditions needed to make such choices.

Rule of Law

The Rule of Law encompasses:

1. Rule of law as an expression of general will.
2. Division of powers.
3. Legality of the administration to act according to law under the control of the judiciary.
4. Rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals and a legal guarantee of the rule of law.

It opposes any absolutist, authoritarian, or totalitarian state.

Legality vs. Legitimacy

• Legality: Refers to the set of rules in a community that constitutes positive law.

Descartes' Meditations: The Grounds of Doubt and the First Truth

In Meditations 1 and 2, Descartes grapples with the challenge of establishing a firm foundation for knowledge. He acknowledges the impossibility of examining every piece of information we possess. Instead, he proposes a systematic approach: to identify and discard any belief that is susceptible to even the slightest doubt. This process leads him to explore increasingly profound reasons for skepticism, revealing the radical nature of his philosophical project.

The Unreliability of the Senses

Descartes' initial source of doubt stems from the unreliability of the senses. He observes that the senses sometimes deceive us, stating, "it is prudent never to trust entirely those who have... Continue reading "Descartes' Meditations: Unveiling Doubt and the First Truth" »

The Relationship Between Politics and Morality

Machiavelli should not be considered immoral or a defender of any method to keep power. Not separating politics from morality does not mean that man gives up the search for good. In Machiavelli's view, property is not a moral but a political good that seeks the common good. Its elements are security and stability, protecting oneself and others, with peace being external security. Order is the internal security of the state. It brings security and stability, so secure power is needed to establish its conditions. Order carried with virtue contributes to stability.

The Political Problem: Formation and Maintenance of a New State

The political problem is: How can a new state be formed and maintained? For... Continue reading "Machiavelli's Political Philosophy: Power, Virtue, and the State" »

Rousseau

Rousseau's work focuses on three thematic groups: music and performances, morality and politics, and individuality (autobiography).

In Emile, Rousseau describes the formation of an individual outside of any social contract. He suggests a natural educational system, divided into phases, where education should enable the individual to secure happiness and collaborate to achieve it with others.

In The Social Contract, he proposes a system of government based on transferring personal freedoms for the common good through a covenant or contract.

In The New Heloise (an epistolary novel), Rousseau begins to explore the romance and passion of love.

Later, he publishes his Confessions, in which he intimately exposes his autobiographical experiences.... Continue reading "Rousseau, Richardson, Defoe, and Swift: Key Works & Themes" »

School Failure in the Valencia Region

A Growing Concern

The Valencia region faces a growing challenge: school failure. A recent study in Teacher magazine revealed a 39.7% school failure rate, second only to Ceuta, and a significant increase of 14.4 points between 2000 and 2006. This alarming trend places the Valencian education system on the brink of collapse. We must address this issue to prevent future problems.

Exploring the Causes

Several factors contribute to rising academic failure among students. This raises important questions about the underlying causes:

• Is the allure of "easy money" without effort a contributing factor?
• Do students find studying too demanding?
• Are schools setting unrealistic expectations?
• Is academic failure perceived as

Understanding Motivation

The behavior is motivated.

If you ask a student why they remain in class hour after hour, day after day, week after week for years, what would they answer? Maybe: "I want to graduate," "I want to be a professional," "I want to be somebody," "I hope to earn lots of money," or "I hope to be a great researcher," or something similar.

That's why psychologists say that behavior is motivated.

Motivation Defined

The terms motivate, motive, and motivation come from the Latin verb "movere," which means to incite or move to action. Certainly, when a person has a goal, they do something to achieve it.

The term motivation is used generically to describe the conditions or states that activate or energize the body and lead to implementing... Continue reading "Understanding Motivation: Types, Characteristics, and Patterns" »