Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

1. How Augustine understands the relationship between faith and reason?
The reason itself is not enough for alkane enough to reach the truth, because by nature is limited, weak and imperfect. Reason must submit to the faith. 2. What makes St. Augustine with Plato's philosophy? Explain. Theory of Knowledge. Adaptation of Plato to Christianity. Man must seek the truth in the outside, because the sensitivity is too unstable. Only in the interiority of the soul will find the sage wisdom. 3. What historical event promotes historical reflection of St. Augustine?
A) The two cities in a work of St. Augustine which was first carried out a philosophy of history. From 410, the pagans to Christianity accused of being responsible for the ruin of the... Continue reading "Medieval philosophy as a confluence of faith and reason" »

Descartes: *Res Cogitans* and Mechanism

The First Principle: *Cogito Ergo Sum*

Applying the first rule of his method—to accept only clear and distinct ideas—Descartes concludes that the first glimmer of truth is "I think." From this, he raises the fundamental question: "What am I?"

Descartes' Conception of Substance

To explain the essence of the self, we must understand these concepts:

• Substance: That which needs nothing else to exist (only applicable absolutely to God).
• Mode: That which needs a substance to exist.
• Attribute: The essential characteristic of a substance.

Descartes distinguishes three types of substances:

1. The self, whose attribute is thinking.
2. God, whose attribute is perfection.
3. The world, whose attribute is extension.

*Res Cogitans*

Theories of Violence in the Family

Early Biological Theories

Early theories attempted to link the abuse of women to biological factors, sometimes referencing figures like Kempe. These theories suggested that abuse might be due to:

1. Violation of an organic nature (e.g., trauma).
2. Viral factors.
3. Substandard genetic makeup or imperfection.

These biological explanations are generally not accepted today as primary causes of domestic violence.

Psychological Theories of Abuse

This perspective focuses on the psychological basis of violence, suggesting that the aggressor may have serious psychological deficiencies or maladaptive ways of resolving conflicts. Psychological theories also consider the victim's personality, suggesting certain traits might make them... Continue reading "Understanding the Core Theories of Domestic Violence" »

Historical Materialism: Marxist Theory of Society

Historical Materialism is the Marxist theory of history, a materialist philosophy that interprets societal development.

Hegel vs. Marx: The Driving Force of History

For Hegel, the dialectical unfolding of history is driven by the Idea; for Marx, it is driven by Matter.

Marx's Materialism: The Common Person as Hero

Marx's materialism asserts that the common person is the hero of history, based on these fundamental claims:

• The Relationship Between Humanity and Nature & Other People: These constitute material relations. People utilize natural resources to produce material goods to satisfy their needs. Marx termed this the social production of life.
• Ideology's Origin: These material relations give

1. Rights and Duties of Students and Non-Teaching Staff

Education plays a crucial role in transmitting societal values, fostering coexistence, and promoting mutual respect. As stated in Article 1 of Organic Law 1/1990 of October 3, on the General Organization of the Educational System, a primary objective of the educational system is to train individuals in respecting fundamental freedoms and exercising tolerance within a democratic framework.

Achieving this requires not only appropriate educational content but also a conducive learning environment. School regulations should cultivate responsibility, diligence, and effort, enabling students to maximize their learning outcomes and develop positive habits. Students must feel that these standards... Continue reading "Students' Rights & Duties: Fostering Responsible Learning Environments" »

Defining Science

Science is a type of knowledge distinct from ordinary knowledge. Ordinary knowledge often focuses on the result of an event, whereas a scientist questions its cause. Science establishes relationships between concepts and formulates laws, asserting that these relationships occur regularly.

Understanding Knowledge

A person knows an event if and only if:

• The subject believes in that event.
• The subject's belief in the event is rationally justified.
• The event is true.

Scientific Knowledge

The scientific community knows a theory if and only if:

• The scientific community believes in this theory.
• The scientific community's belief in that theory is rational and scientifically justified.

These conditions are also necessary; the scientific community... Continue reading "The Nature of Science: Concepts, Criteria, and Categories" »

Understanding Parts of Speech in English Grammar

In English grammar, words are categorized into different classes based on their function and meaning within a sentence. These categories, known as parts of speech, are fundamental to constructing clear and grammatically correct sentences.

Determiners and Pronouns

Determiners

Determiners are words that precede a noun to specify its meaning or reference. They help to clarify whether the noun is general or specific, and indicate quantity or possession.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that replace a noun, preventing repetition. They never appear with the noun they replace. Both determiners and pronouns carry significant grammatical meaning.

Articles

The article is a variable word that allows for variations in... Continue reading "Essential English Grammar: Understanding Parts of Speech" »

Historical Context (16th & 17th Centuries)

The Renaissance marked a return to classical ideals. In contrast, the Baroque period was a time of crisis, particularly for Spain, which lost its hegemony. Several problems arose:

Societal Shifts

After the Renaissance, the economic and cultural center shifted from Italy and Spain to France, Holland, and England. This led to a societal crisis:

• Economic Crisis: Agriculture-based economies suffered from poor harvests and famine.
• Social Hierarchy: Existing class structures began to crumble.
• Political Instability: Wars and revolts were common.

Religious and Intellectual Upheavals

• Religious Conflicts: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation caused tension between Catholics and Protestants.
• Scientific Revolution:

Dialectical Method

The dialectical method investigates the nature of truth through critical analysis of concepts and hypotheses. One of the earliest examples of this method is offered by the Greek philosopher Plato's Dialogues, in which the author undertakes the study of truth through discussion in the form of questions and answers. Plato's most famous student, Aristotle, understood dialectic as the search for the philosophical basis of science, and often used the term as synonymous with the science of logic.

The Idea of Good

The status and functions that Plato gives to the Idea of Good in his philosophy are such that many authors have identified it with God. This philosopher believed that the Idea of Good has two fundamental roles: it creates... Continue reading "Key Ideas in Plato's Philosophy" »

Language

A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or words that enables people to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. It studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

Pragmatics

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used. It studies how context contributes to meaning, considering factors like time, place, and social situation.

Metalinguistics

The study of language and its relationship to other cultural behaviors. It involves using language to talk about language itself.

Thinking

The process of using one's mind to consider or reason about something. It involves forming ideas, mental images, and understanding existence,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Language, Logic, and Reading Comprehension" »