Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Economy and Ideology in Marx

The term ideology was created to designate the science of knowledge, the set of ideas that characterize a time or a group of people, but over time, it acquired a negative meaning, which Marx maintained. For Marx, ideology is false consciousness; it is the belief that human thoughts are independent and only depend on brainpower. For him, ideas and beliefs are conditioned by the economy; material reality governs thought. In short, ideology tends to distort reality because, being dependent on the economic situation, it is a false consciousness, as he pointed out earlier.

Whoever controls the economy will control ideology. In capitalist society, the bourgeois class controls the economy and ideology.

Marx distinguishes... Continue reading "Marx: Economy, Ideology, and Alienation" »

The Problem of Metaphysics

In metaphysics, critical reason seeks to understand the reality of the speculative or theoretical, apart from sensory experience. Kant observed that this discipline was barely progressing, often regressing, and dominated by disagreements. He attributed this to the dogmatism of some philosophers and the skepticism of others. To resolve this impasse, Kant undertook a metaphysical inquiry that was critical rather than dogmatic.

Kant addressed the problem of metaphysics by distinguishing between scientific knowledge, moral philosophy, and dogmatic metaphysics. This distinction led to three consequences:

• The possibility of metaphysics as a theory about the foundations of knowledge and science.
• The possibility of metaphysics

Utilitarianism: Principles and Human Dignity

Bernard Williams on Utilitarianism

Bernard Williams, in his Introduction to Ethics (pp. 95-110), states that utilitarianism, as an ethical school of thought, has four characteristics:

• Utilitarianism of the Act and Utilitarianism of the Rule
  • 1. Utilitarianism of the Act: This involves a calculation of what course of action will maximize pleasure or happiness in each specific case or circumstance, without following a priori rules. Every action has consequences, and these consequences are what allow us to judge its value. Utilitarianism of the act is associated with Bentham.
  • 2. Utilitarianism of the Rule: This is an attempt to universalize criteria, and it is based on the utilitarian standard of "maximum

Impugning Dismissal in Spain

When facing dismissal, a worker has 20 business days, common to all dismissal types, to attend the Mediation, Arbitration, and Conciliation Service (SMAC) and file a conciliation request. This step is mandatory before initiating litigation in the Social Court. The conciliation must occur within 20 business days from the dismissal date. This act suspends the 20-day limitation period, and the count resumes the day after the attempted conciliation. The conciliation may result in an agreement or no agreement. If no agreement is reached, the worker can file a lawsuit before the Social Court.

Types of Dismissals

• Null Dismissal: Based on discriminatory grounds or violates the worker's fundamental rights and civil liberties.

Fixity of Species

Aristotle studied life, classifying plants and animals into species and genera. He believed species are eternal, unchanging, and consistent across generations. Biology focused on species, not individuals, with organ form linked to function. Aristotle acknowledged human intervention against nature but minimized evolutionary processes. Creationism reinforced this fixist view, asserting God created perfect, unchanging species.

Transformation

Transformation suggests species evolve through anatomical changes. Lamarck proposed that function creates organs, adapting to the environment. However, these acquired characteristics are not inheritable.

Darwinism

Darwin's theory of evolution posits:

• All life shares a common origin.
• Species evolve,

Freud: Exploring the Unconscious Mind

Freud, the discoverer of psychoanalysis, introduced a new way to understand the processes of the mind, opening the door to another dimension of human beings. He sought to uncover the hidden, irrational, and unconscious instincts that govern our minds. According to Freud, we all harbor desires that drive our personality, but we cannot consciously accept them due to societal constraints, education, and our own will. These desires are deliberately kept in the unconscious, repressed, but remain active, constantly seeking release.

Freud conceived of mental life as a battlefield between two innate instincts that govern human behavior: the death instinct (Thanatos), whose goal is the return to non-living matter,... Continue reading "Freud and Marx: Unveiling the Human Psyche and Society" »

Rousseau's Social Contract Theory

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was deeply interested in transforming the prevailing social order in Europe, which was characterized by the struggle between the monarchy and the bourgeoisie. To develop his theory, he created a fictional state of nature where he posited the existence of a natural man, often referred to as the noble savage.

The natural man lives in harmony between his inner nature (his needs) and external nature (the environment), as his surroundings provide him with everything he requires. The noble savage is not inherently a social being; he lacks extensive knowledge, does not imagine the future, but lives solely in the present, and has no inherent idea of good or evil.

Rousseau believed that two primary... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of the State: Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel" »

Most previous philosophers give primacy to theoretical philosophy over practice. Aristotle conceived of happiness as the ability to lead a contemplative life devoted to study and theoretical knowledge. Plato considered the role of knowledge, looking at the world consisting of ideas, in particular, the idea of good or supreme, but the term of such contemplation was fit to rule. Theory directs and governs the practical life from the supersensible world. The entire knowledge of Platonic politics is heading to its culmination, so knowledge of the theory makes sense when it becomes praxis.

Marx's Perspective on Human Essence

Karl Marx understands the human essence as linked to the way work distinguishes man from animals. It is not so much reason as... Continue reading "Practice vs. Theory: A Philosophical Examination" »

Political Power

Political power encompasses the various forms of influence that shape human behavior within a political community. It is an essential element of any such community and represents the socially accepted power integrated into an established order, deriving from a higher authority.

Authority vs. Power

Authority, distinct from power, signifies the demonstrated knowledge possessed by an individual rather than their actual or effective power.

Characteristics of Political Power

• Beneficial
• Orders individual behaviors
• Coercive
• Limited

The distribution and limitation of political power give rise to different political systems.

Mechanisms of Control and Self-Restraint

• Rule of law
• Recognition and assurance of dignity, freedom, and human rights
• Limitations

Human Sciences and Empiricism: A Philosophical Inquiry

Hume's Empirical Approach to Human Understanding

Hume's primary objective was to establish a science of man based on empirical observation. He sought to understand humans through data derived from experience. This philosophy contrasted sharply with Platonic and Aristotelian thought. To develop a science of man, Hume believed it was essential to establish a doctrine of knowledge that would determine truth. This involved analyzing key issues within the empiricist tradition, such as ideas of essence and substance. Finally, Hume focused on understanding passions and analyzing moral actions, arguing that humans are governed by their passions more than reason. His philosophy challenged traditionally... Continue reading "Human Sciences & Empiricism: A Philosophical Inquiry" »