Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) facilitates decision-making, objective setting, and alternative generation. This structured brainstorming method yields focused results, proving valuable when aiming for common conclusions or proposals. NGT helps overcome obstacles in achieving unanimous agreements and clearly defining collective objectives. Ideally used with groups of up to twelve people, NGT sessions combine individual reflection with group interaction.

NGT works best with homogenous groups striving for consensus on a specific action plan. If conflicting viewpoints arise, separate nominal groups representing different perspectives can be formed. A typical NGT session follows these steps:

1. The leader introduces

Nietzsche's Philosophy of Life

A vital aspect of Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy is that life is irreducible to any category outside of itself. For Nietzsche, life has no foundation beyond its own existence and possesses value in and of itself.

Critique of Western Culture

Nietzsche places the onset of the crisis of the Greek spirit in the 5th century BC. He believed the ancient Greeks originally accepted the two basic dimensions of reality, expressing them through the cults of Apollo (reason, order) and Dionysus (passion, chaos). According to Nietzsche, Western decadence destroyed this perfect union between reason and life. This decline began with:

• Socrates: Who gave precedence to reason over instinct.
• Plato: Who followed by inventing the "real

Basic Propositions of Classical Mechanics (Newton)

• It is possible and desirable to reduce all natural phenomena to the interaction of material particles possessing objective reality.
• Only mathematically quantifiable qualities: extension and motion.
• It is sufficient to describe mathematically the laws governing movements: scientific explanation only needs to express the mathematical relationship between two covariant variables.
• Size and extent in space are objective properties of bodies.
• Mass is a property of all bodies.
• All movements in nature have a cause. In physical reality, there is no freedom. Everything is determined.
• Primary qualities of objects (shape, size, motion, and position) are independent of the observer.

The Problem of Human Freedom

St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy

Differences with Aristotle

St. Thomas Aquinas' political philosophy is based on Aristotle's. However, for St. Thomas, man's only natural order is God. Some key differences exist between them:

First Difference: The Perfect Community

For Aristotle, the state is the perfect community, satisfying all human needs and providing happiness. In St. Thomas' time, the concept of the city differed from Aristotle's. St. Thomas distinguished two types of communities:

• The house or family
• The city and the kingdom, understood as a grouping of cities, which St. Thomas considered the perfect community.

Second Difference: The Concept of Peace

Aristotle did not consider peace a necessary condition of a perfect community. He believed... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy: A Comparison with Aristotle" »

Aristotle's Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

Aristotle's ethics centers on the pursuit of happiness as its ultimate purpose. While some equate happiness with pleasure or wealth, Aristotle believed that the wise person finds it in living a life of intellectual virtue. This doesn't mean rejecting sensory pleasures or material goods, but rather enjoying them in moderation, ensuring they don't hinder the contemplation of truth.

The Concept of Virtue

Aristotle developed the concept of virtue as a balance. Human actions should be governed by prudence and reason. He distinguished between two types of virtue:

• Dianoetic virtues: Related to the exercise of intelligence.
• Ethical virtues: Related to sensitivity and affection.

All virtues are habits acquired... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics: Pursuit of Happiness and Virtue" »

Myth vs. Logos: The Dawn of Philosophy

Myth

Myths provided a sense of the world, unlike philosophy. A myth is a fantastical story, rich in symbols and metaphors, passed down through generations or created by a group of authors. Myths explain the world's origin and answer questions about the afterlife.

Characteristics of Myth:

1. A sacred narrative story.
2. Originates in a primordial, mythical time.
3. Recounts the exploits of supernatural or imaginary beings, hence its symbolic nature.
4. Considered a true narrative speaking of realities, not to be discussed or questioned.

Myth refers to a deeper meaning, an experience beyond history, serving as a reference for the present. Myths are typically transmitted orally, highlighting social identity and cohesion, playing... Continue reading "Myth and Logos: The Rise of Philosophical Thought" »

The Birth of Philosophy

The birth of philosophy, or the beginning of systematic knowledge, occurred in the sixth century BC in Greece, when mythological narratives gradually ceased to serve as the sole explanatory model.

Despite the fact that Greece was less developed, philosophers like Thales of Miletus decided to answer fundamental human questions based on observation and reasoning.

Speculation began in Greece, perhaps due to the sharing of political power, which necessitated greater communication and encouraged the emergence of new theories.

Key Figures in Early Philosophy

• The Sophists: With the emergence of philosophy, the first teachers, *The Sophists*, appeared. They considered themselves possessors of knowledge and their sole purpose was

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy, a broad field of knowledge born in antiquity, is the pursuit of understanding through rational, systematic, and critical inquiry. Originating in Ionia, a Greek colony in Asia Minor, during the 6th century BC, philosophy emerged when humans began to observe their surroundings with wonder and sought to replace mythological explanations of reality with philosophical ones. Philosophy also examines the validity and fundamentals of other disciplines, such as the philosophy of culture, mind, and language.

Key Characteristics of Philosophy

• Rational: Based on logical arguments, empirical observations, and demonstrations.
• Systematic: Demands that all claims are related and hierarchical, ensuring consistency and order.
• Critical:

Immanuel Kant: Synthesizing Knowledge and Ethics

Immanuel Kant was an eighteenth-century German philosopher who lived during the Enlightenment. Kant attempted a synthesis between rationalism and empiricism, offering a new way of interpreting human knowledge. He sought to answer the question: "Is metaphysics possible as a science?" and to analyze existing ethics to create his own.

Critique of Pre-Kantian Ethical Systems

Kant analyzed ethics preceding his time, determining that these were theological, teleological, or materialist, because they prescribed actions based on desired outcomes. This is because any theological ethics is based on the idea that there are good things for human beings and therefore begins to consider what the highest good... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Ethical Framework: Duty and Categorical Imperative" »