Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Origins of Scientific Inquiry and Knowledge

The scientific attitude begins by questioning the phenomena of reality, seeking to understand their underlying causes. From these probable causes, descriptions are formulated.

The source of this attitude can be traced back to figures like Galileo, often considered the father of modern science. This pursuit of knowledge translates to episteme, a concept contrasted with doxa (common opinion).

Plato considered episteme to be the highest form of knowledge, while doxa was mere opinion about contingent things. Aristotle, on the other hand, conceived of knowledge as an integration of sensory experience and mental abstraction. Crucially, knowledge requires language for its expression and development.

Therefore,... Continue reading "Scientific Knowledge: Foundations and Reasoning Methods" »

The Working Nature of Human Beings (Marxist View)

For Marx, the human being is a natural being that, having come from nature, differs from animals because the human has to produce the means to survive by changing the nature in which they live. This transformation is accomplished through work.

We are productive, 'active' beings who need to transform nature to survive, and it is through this activity that we enter into relationships with other human beings.

Thus, for Marx, it is not the consciousness of men that determines their being; rather, the reverse is true: their social being determines their consciousness. He argues that abstract consideration of the human being alone is not worthwhile.

Furthermore, Marx holds a materialist view: there is... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Theory of Labor, Production, and Alienation" »

Hume's Emotive Moral Theory

Hume's moral theory is a key part of his plan to build a science of human nature with scientific rigor comparable to that achieved by Newton in the natural sciences. The science of human nature does not end with the explanation of knowledge, but must include a justification of the principles governing human behavior.

Hume's ethical theory is based on the refusal to accept that reason can be the foundation of moral life. Moral rationalism has been the dominant ethical explanation since the beginning of philosophy, with the exception of the moral theory of the Sophists. Hume considers that moral rationalism has made an error, as it confuses the field of theoretical philosophy and practical philosophy by not drawing clear... Continue reading "Hume's Emotivism: The Role of Feelings in Moral Judgments" »

Foundational Questions and Shared Commitments

The theories of knowledge proposed by Plato and Marx represent two distinct yet interconnected approaches to a fundamental question: What is the reality we need to know? Despite radical differences in their philosophical systems, both thinkers shared a profound commitment to transforming the societies in which they lived through philosophy. Just as Plato was a political thinker aiming to reform ancient Athens, Marx was a political thinker seeking to change the social reality of the 19th and 20th centuries through his philosophical insights. However, the distinctions between these two influential authors are profound.

Contrasting Ontologies: Idealism Versus Materialism

A primary divergence lies in their... Continue reading "Plato and Marx: Divergent Paths to Social Transformation" »

The 17th Century: A Transformative Era

Sociopolitical and Religious Landscape

The 17th century, often associated with the late Renaissance and early modern period, was marked by significant crisis and anxiety, leading to numerous rebellions. The Protestant Reformation had shattered religious unity, which was met with the Counter-Reformation.

Religious conflict across Europe culminated in the devastating Thirty Years' War, which concluded in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. This landmark treaty formally recognized religious tolerance among states.

Politically, the century was dominated by absolutism, exemplified by the model of Louis XIV of France. Simultaneously, the rising bourgeoisie sought to limit monarchical power, advocating for individual... Continue reading "The 17th Century: Philosophy, Conflict, and Enlightenment" »

Understanding Justice and Social Justice

Defining Justice

Justice is a set of laws and principles that seek to establish good relations and equality among people.

The Emergence of Social Justice

Social justice emerged from the struggle to improve the conditions of the working class. It strives to achieve:

• Recognition and respect for human dignity
• Fair and equitable distribution of economic, cultural, and legal goods
• Development of an equality of opportunities agenda
• Social security for all

The Genesis of Human Rights

Early Declarations of Rights

The first proclamations of human rights appeared in the late 18th century, advocating for the freedom, equality, and dignity of individuals. Notable examples include the Declaration of Rights of Virginia, the... Continue reading "Foundations of Human Rights and Social Justice" »

Fundamental Concepts of Ethics and Morality

This examination delves into the historical moral philosophy, its structure, and origin. However, it extends beyond mere description, aiming to develop a transcultural moral system—a universal framework valid for all cultures, which we term "ethics." This pursuit utilizes three core concepts:

• Moral: A normative system within a society that defines what constitutes good and bad behaviors. Morals are diverse, varying significantly across different cultures.
• Philosophy of Morality: The study of morals as an integral part of human culture, analyzing their genealogy and criteria for validity.
• Ethics: A moral-cultural framework developed through reason, drawing upon the moral experiences of those within a

Heraclitus of Ephesus: The Philosophy of Becoming

For Heraclitus, nature cannot truly be said to be, as all reality is constantly changing; reality is perpetually coming into being. When concerned with whether nature is permanent or changing, Heraclitus asserts that it is changing, stating that it is not, but rather, it is doing.

His famous illustration of flux is: “You cannot bathe twice in the same river, for you are not the same every time, nor is the water the same.”

Panta Rei: Everything Flows

One of his most famous aphorisms (a short phrase difficult to interpret) is PANTA REI: Everything flows, nothing is permanent. Panta Rei is the principle of unity of all things, but this principle is also one of DISSOLUTION. This inherent contradiction... Continue reading "Heraclitus's Philosophy of Flux: Panta Rei and the Eternal Fire" »

Understanding Philosophy and Key Concepts

Etymology of Philosophy

Philo (friend or lover) + Sofia (wisdom) = Love of wisdom.

Origins of Philosophy

Birthplace: Ionia, 6th century BC.

Exploring Myths and Logos

Understanding Myths

Myths turn to legendary characters. They are imaginative or fantastic stories. The author is always unknown and collective. They have a traditional and uncritical character.

The Transition from Myth to Logos

The passage from myth to logos involves the emergence of rational thought and reflection (logos), which takes the place of the traditional mythic explanations uncritically accepted (myth).

Defining Philosophy

Key Features of Philosophy

• Rational: Based on logical arguments.
• Systematic: Requires that all claims are related and

State Formation Methods

How does a state begin to exist? States can arise in several ways:

• A colony declares independence from its motherland.
• Two or more states merge to form a new state.
• New states emerge from the dismemberment of an existing state.
• A community establishes a state in a terra nullius (territory belonging to no one).

In each case, a state legally exists when its essential elements are met. The principle of effectiveness prevails in international law. A mere declaration of independence is insufficient; the lack of legitimacy from the former ruling entity does not prevent state formation.

State Extinction

States can cease to exist through:

• Fusion: Two or more states unite to form a new, larger state, losing their original identities.
• Incorporation/