Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Fixity of Species

Aristotle studied life, classifying plants and animals into species and genera. He believed species are eternal, unchanging, and consistent across generations. Biology focused on species, not individuals, with organ form linked to function. Aristotle acknowledged human intervention against nature but minimized evolutionary processes. Creationism reinforced this fixist view, asserting God created perfect, unchanging species.

Transformation

Transformation suggests species evolve through anatomical changes. Lamarck proposed that function creates organs, adapting to the environment. However, these acquired characteristics are not inheritable.

Darwinism

Darwin's theory of evolution posits:

• All life shares a common origin.
• Species evolve,

Freud: Exploring the Unconscious Mind

Freud, the discoverer of psychoanalysis, introduced a new way to understand the processes of the mind, opening the door to another dimension of human beings. He sought to uncover the hidden, irrational, and unconscious instincts that govern our minds. According to Freud, we all harbor desires that drive our personality, but we cannot consciously accept them due to societal constraints, education, and our own will. These desires are deliberately kept in the unconscious, repressed, but remain active, constantly seeking release.

Freud conceived of mental life as a battlefield between two innate instincts that govern human behavior: the death instinct (Thanatos), whose goal is the return to non-living matter,... Continue reading "Freud and Marx: Unveiling the Human Psyche and Society" »

Rousseau's Social Contract Theory

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was deeply interested in transforming the prevailing social order in Europe, which was characterized by the struggle between the monarchy and the bourgeoisie. To develop his theory, he created a fictional state of nature where he posited the existence of a natural man, often referred to as the noble savage.

The natural man lives in harmony between his inner nature (his needs) and external nature (the environment), as his surroundings provide him with everything he requires. The noble savage is not inherently a social being; he lacks extensive knowledge, does not imagine the future, but lives solely in the present, and has no inherent idea of good or evil.

Rousseau believed that two primary... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of the State: Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel" »

Most previous philosophers give primacy to theoretical philosophy over practice. Aristotle conceived of happiness as the ability to lead a contemplative life devoted to study and theoretical knowledge. Plato considered the role of knowledge, looking at the world consisting of ideas, in particular, the idea of good or supreme, but the term of such contemplation was fit to rule. Theory directs and governs the practical life from the supersensible world. The entire knowledge of Platonic politics is heading to its culmination, so knowledge of the theory makes sense when it becomes praxis.

Marx's Perspective on Human Essence

Karl Marx understands the human essence as linked to the way work distinguishes man from animals. It is not so much reason as... Continue reading "Practice vs. Theory: A Philosophical Examination" »

Political Power

Political power encompasses the various forms of influence that shape human behavior within a political community. It is an essential element of any such community and represents the socially accepted power integrated into an established order, deriving from a higher authority.

Authority vs. Power

Authority, distinct from power, signifies the demonstrated knowledge possessed by an individual rather than their actual or effective power.

Characteristics of Political Power

• Beneficial
• Orders individual behaviors
• Coercive
• Limited

The distribution and limitation of political power give rise to different political systems.

Mechanisms of Control and Self-Restraint

• Rule of law
• Recognition and assurance of dignity, freedom, and human rights
• Limitations

Human Sciences and Empiricism: A Philosophical Inquiry

Hume's Empirical Approach to Human Understanding

Hume's primary objective was to establish a science of man based on empirical observation. He sought to understand humans through data derived from experience. This philosophy contrasted sharply with Platonic and Aristotelian thought. To develop a science of man, Hume believed it was essential to establish a doctrine of knowledge that would determine truth. This involved analyzing key issues within the empiricist tradition, such as ideas of essence and substance. Finally, Hume focused on understanding passions and analyzing moral actions, arguing that humans are governed by their passions more than reason. His philosophy challenged traditionally... Continue reading "Human Sciences & Empiricism: A Philosophical Inquiry" »

Evolutionary Theories and Concepts

Fixism and Evolution

Fixism posits that all species are independent and remain unchanged over time since their creation. In contrast, Evolution is the theory that the universe and all manifestations of life are the product of diverse development. Species diversity is the result of change and adaptation.

Early Evolutionary Thought: Transformism

Transformism (17th century) suggests the appearance of new species due to the transformation of primitive ones.

Lamarckism: The First Comprehensive Theory

Lamarckism is recognized as the first comprehensive theory of biological evolution. It defends a gradual progression from simple organisms to more complex ones. Changes, according to Lamarck, occur to adapt to the environment,... Continue reading "Evolutionary Theories and Human Social Thought" »

EM Parables: Storytelling in Education

Parables (stories told) are an excellent educational tool. They suggest rather than impose. Stories and practical actions are better guides than rigid rules. Principles and empirical evidence support this approach.

Partial MS Approaches: Dilemmas and Narratives

1. Dilemmas focus on problem-solving, not character description. The protagonist's virtues are fundamental. The goal is finding a solution, not detailed descriptions.

2. Dilemmas demonstrate social characteristics.

3. Dilemmas are open-ended. Each person decides the conclusion.

In stories versus dilemmas, adults convey a judged narrative.

Contrarily, non-directive education posits that adults should not impose values. "Every child is a moral philosopher... Continue reading "Moral Education: Methods, Dilemmas, and Storytelling" »

Transcendental Aesthetic

The term 'aesthetic' is Greek and means sensation. The term 'sensitivity' is often used in philosophy to describe the ability to receive sensations. Kant defined sensitivity as the ability of the subject to be affected by external realities; through sensitivity, the aforementioned objects are given to us. Sensitivity is the first step of all knowledge because only through it is our knowledge related immediately to the actual exterior. Sensations are given *a posteriori* and are the signals that meet at sensitivity. We do not receive raw feelings, but these are presented as ordered in certain relations. That is, how sensations appear is already an *a priori* form in the spirit. Kant also called this pure intuition, reserving... Continue reading "Transcendental Aesthetic and Dialectic in Kantian Philosophy" »

Aristotle's Critique of Plato's Ideas

Aristotle critiques Plato's Theory of Ideas. Aristotle focuses his philosophy on the sensible world. Plato believed the world of ideas is the true reality, and the world that surrounds us is merely an imperfect copy of those ideas. Aristotle initially agreed with this doctrine but later developed doubts, which eventually turned into strong criticism and rejection.

There are three main criticisms:

1. First, if the sensible, material world around us is an imperfect copy of the ideas, then logically everything that exists must have a perfect model. This would imply a 'perfect model of evil.' Aristotle argues we cannot accept that everything negative and bad in the world has a perfect counterpart in the world of