Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Relativism

Relativism: Each has its own truth, and nothing is better than that of others. There are no absolute truths, but all depend on the person or culture in which they remain.

Skepticism

Skepticism: It is not possible to argue knowledge; no truths can be established. Gorgias, a Sophist of the 5th century BC, showed it well:

1. Nothing exists.
2. If anything existed, it could not be known to man.
3. If anything existed, it could not be expressed with language.

Sophists

Sophists: Teachers of "political virtue" of Athens in the 5th century BC. Language did not express reality but was an instrument of manipulation, a weapon of persuasion. The Athenian youths, eager to succeed in politics, paid to be taught this. They believed in relativism, skepticism, and... Continue reading "Truth and Knowledge: Relativism, Skepticism, and Dogmatism" »

English Modal Verbs: Ability, Possibility, and More

Ability:

• Can (present)
• Could (past, specific time)
• Was/Were able to (past, general moments)

Possibility/Deductions:

• Must (99% sure)
• Cannot (99% sure)
• May, Might, Could (approximately 50%)

Obligation:

• Must (orders from someone)
• Have to (imposed by law)

Prohibitions and Necessity:

• Mustn't (prohibited)
• Don't have to / Don't need to (not necessary)
• Needn't (not necessary, similar meaning)

Advice:

• Should (generally applicable)
• Ought to (less commonly used)
• Had better (less formal)

Permission:

• May, Can, Could, Be allowed to (ranging from formal to less formal)

Modal Perfect:

• Could have (suggestions)
• Must have (past logical deductions)
• Cannot have (past impossible facts)
• Should have (opinion on past facts)
• Should not have

Scholasticism

Scholasticism was a philosophical and theological movement conducted in schools and universities of medieval Europe from the mid-11th century until the mid-15th century. Its ideal was to integrate into an ordered system both the philosophical knowledge of Greece and Rome and the knowledge of Christian religion. Its main principles are:

1. Fundamental harmony between reason and revelation. Any apparent opposition between revelation and reason could be traced to either a misuse of reason or a misinterpretation of the words of revelation. In conflicts between religious faith and philosophical reasoning, faith was always the ultimate arbiter. During the scholastic period, philosophy served theology.
2. The problem of universals: Are universals

Democritus and Atomic Theory

Democritus proposed that the universe is composed of indivisible and indestructible elements called atoms. This contrasts with modern atomic theory, where atoms are divisible and behave according to quantum mechanics. Atoms are in constant motion, and their interactions have implications for life and death, healing and destruction.

Protagoras and Relativism

Pythagoras' Influence

Protagoras, influenced by Pythagoras, stated, "Man is the measure of all things, of what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not." This suggests that truth is relative and varies based on individual perspectives. This period is known as the anthropological period, focusing on human nature and thought.

Views on Democracy and Law

• Charicles:

Hellenistic Philosophy (4th - 3rd Century BC)

Spread of Hellenism:

Following Alexander the Great's empire and the subsequent tyrannies after his death, philosophers shifted their focus towards the pursuit of happiness. Major post-Aristotelian schools of ethics emerged, including:

1. Epicureanism
2. Stoicism
3. Skepticism

In Alexandria, under the Ptolemaic dynasty, philosophy and science flourished with figures like Aristarchus of Samos, Archimedes, and Euclid. This marked a shift away from Athens as the center of intellectual activity. While the Academy and the Lyceum continued, no major figures emerged after Plato and Aristotle.

1. Epicureanism:

Founded by Epicurus of Samos, this school focused on ethics, physics, and logic.

Key tenets:

• Happiness: Defined as

Aristotle's Ethical Theory: Happiness as the End of Actions

For Aristotle, happiness for man is the ultimate goal. He conceives of happiness in three ways: external goods, goods of the body, and activities of the soul. Aristotle asserts that the unique good is theoretical or contemplative activity.

The Theory of Virtue

Virtue is the strategy for achieving this happiness. Aristotle identifies two types of virtues: dianoetic (intellectual) and ethical (moral).

Happiness as Autarky

Autarky is considered self-reliance and the capacity to be self-sufficient. The happy individual will not need anything or anyone, not even a god.

Aristotle's Political Theory

The City and Citizens

Only in the city, in the sense of the Greek city-state, can man develop fully.... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics and Political Philosophy: Happiness, Virtue, and the Ideal State" »

Descartes

Descartes introduces a mathematical method into philosophy, giving reason as the definitive criterion for human truth.

Doubt and the First Truth

Descartes makes a radical critique of all knowledge, considering all previous knowledge unreliable. His universal method is based on the following reasons:

• Sense-data uncertainty: The senses have deceived us many times. Therefore, Descartes doubts all data originating from the senses, including his own body and the material reality of the world.
• The errors of reasoning: Humans often commit errors. A good part of traditional knowledge is based on reason, but this knowledge has become confused. Therefore, there is reason to doubt all knowledge taken as demonstrated.
• The difficulty distinguishing

Human Dignity: A Fundamental Assumption

Kant believed that what characterizes human beings from a moral standpoint is their inherent dignity. To violate this dignity is to treat a human as a means or a tool. The end is always the person, who has intrinsic value and not a price. Therefore, they cannot be bought. The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "liberty, justice, and peace are universally established values," the realization of which depends on the recognition of the dignity of all. Dignity itself is not a scientific fact; it does not belong to the vocabulary of science. Some try to deduce it from human nature, others from reason. However, describing reality as it is does not mean deducing norms from it. Intelligence... Continue reading "Human Dignity and the Ethical Project: A Foundation for Universal Values" »

Saint Augustine: Existence, Love, and the Pursuit of Knowledge

1. Existence and Love for the Sake of Knowledge

Saint Augustine indicates the first tendency of love as a style of life. All creatures tend towards life; there is a universal desire for life and an aversion to death. This tendency, whose common sense is a witness, manifests in one's own life, pointing to God as its creator. However, if one loves, one's love is will, and free will exists. To know is to love, and to love is to know. One loves and desires love, existence, knowledge, and power. This is unique to humans and not possessed by any other creature, as humans were created in the image and likeness of God.

According to Saint Augustine, everything desires to remain in its being... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Existence, Love, and Knowledge" »

Key Concepts in Logic and Language

• Logical Structure: Represents the structure of reality or organizes the theories and arguments with which we structure reality and discuss it.
• Ambiguity: The ability to understand something in several ways, admitting multiple interpretations, potentially leading to confusion.
• Paradox: A statement that appears accurate but may lead to a contradiction.
• Contradiction: Saying the opposite of what was previously stated or denying what is considered certain.
• Metalanguage: A language used to describe another language.
• Object Language: The language being described by the metalanguage, often referring to objects.
• Use: Designating something using linguistic expressions and terms in place of the object itself. Use occurs within