Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Language Games

A language game is the use we make of a term to mean something. For example, the term "white" can be used to mean, among other possible uses, "white is the clearest of all colors."

Therefore, the set of language games in which a term appears would be the meaning of that term: the meaning of a word is its method of use.

• Each of the "language games" in which a term appears is the ruling that indicates the "logical" or "grammar" of that term: what makes sense and what does not make sense to use that term, moves allowed and which are not.
• These rules are further instructions for learning this term: learning these rules involves learning the contents of that term and understanding their conceptual load, i.e., knowing how to use it correctly.

Before delving into the differences, it's crucial to understand the lineage: Aristotle was a student of Plato, who, in turn, was a student of Socrates.

Socrates and Plato shared a belief in the possibility of acquiring objective, necessary, and universal knowledge. However, their focus was exclusively on knowledge that is unchanging and eternal, thus disregarding what we perceive through the senses.

Plato Versus Aristotle: Divergent Metaphysics

Plato's Dual Worlds: Ideas and Senses

• World of Ideas: Imperceptible by the senses, perfect, and eternal.
• Sensible World: An imperfect copy of the ideal World of Ideas, perceived through the senses.

Aristotle's Agreement and Critique of Plato

Aristotle concurred with Plato on the existence of objective, necessary,... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Knowledge, Change, and Hylomorphism" »

Thought and Language

The following positions can be held about the relationship between thought and language:

• Thought is based on and depends on language: Language allows thought to flow, shaping and limiting it. Thinking about nothing is easier than thinking about something concrete.
• Thought is language: Language is a system of signs, which do not necessarily have to be spoken or written.
• Language is based on thought: Thinking is an innate faculty that can be developed and perfected. Language is not innate; it is learned. No one is born knowing how to speak; therefore, thought precedes language.

Language and Reality

Relations between language and reality:

• Human language is conventional. Words do not emerge naturally from things; instead, "all our

Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact

Matters of Fact

Matters of fact are based on observation and experience, and refer to the facts, all that is available to perception. Knowledge does not allow for strict certainty. Knowledge refers to the empirical world and is based on experience. Unlike mathematics and logic, it does not allow for strict knowledge but is based on probability, because the opposite of each event is always possible, though perhaps foreign to our experience.

The facts are the happenings in the world, the behaviors of things as shown by the senses. The physical facts are given in time and space, and mental events in time. We call the whole experience of perceived facts. A few facts are followed by other facts.

Not to be confused... Continue reading "Understanding Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact" »

Accidental Changes

When these changes are substantial, the substance is generated and is corrupted. Matter also includes the absolutely indeterminate concept, certainly a subject very close to that area from the Platonic demiurge that configured sensitive objects in the world according to the models of ideas.

Ends and Goods

There are many ends and goods, some of which are subject in a chain to more important ones. The supreme good that we would like to achieve by itself does make a supreme good, there are no others. This is the type of interpretation of happiness.

Three Interpretations of Happiness

• Happiness equals pleasure (vulgar nature)
• Happiness in political or public life, glory, and seeking honor
• Happiness in contemplative or intellectual knowledge

The... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Matter, Happiness, Virtue, and Politics" »

Feature Articles: Amplifying Core Facts

Feature articles amplify news, ensuring their content focuses on fundamental facts. The report aims to emphasize the traits of a fact, specifying the circumstances and environment that frame it. Its structure is more open than that of a standard news report.

The Interview: Methods and Genres

An interview can be understood in two ways: as a method of investigation or as a journalistic genre.

Interview as Investigation Method

The reporter seeks out people who can provide documented information for a subsequent report.

Interview as Journalistic Genre

This genre is more limited, as it focuses on collecting information from a single source. This can be a biographical interview or an informative interview. The typical... Continue reading "Journalistic Genres: Understanding Media Content Forms" »

Renaissance Themes and Motifs

Topics Carpe diem, which invites the reader to enjoy the present moment. Collige, virgo, rosas, a young exhortation to enjoy love before time withers her beauty. Locus amoenus, which recreates a green meadow, fresh and clear, that is a haven for the poet to express their amorous suffering. Second half of the sixteenth century: Golden mean, offering a moderate praise of life, detached from any ambition. Beatus ille, expressing regret for a life away from the chaos of the world; seeking peace and harmony with nature. Topics Nature, Love — love in the Renaissance is influenced by Neoplatonic philosophy and has a Petrarchan conception: free from carnal appetites, it raises man from the material to the immaterial.... Continue reading "Renaissance Themes: Carpe Diem, Love, Mythology & Mysticism" »

Aristotle's Politics

Aristotle's Politics is regarded as a fundamental science. Following the Sophists and Plato, Aristotle views humans as inherently social beings, famously stating that "man is a political animal" and the only creature endowed with speech.

The Structure of the City

Aristotle outlines the progression of human organization:

• Family: The basic unit.
• Village: A collection of families.
• City (Polis): The most perfect community of free men oriented toward living virtuously. In this view, politics is absorbed by ethics.

Political Methodology

Aristotle's study is not a utopia but an empirical analysis of 158 existing constitutions to determine the most effective models. He critiques Plato's utopianism, specifically the abolition of private... Continue reading "Aristotle's Politics and Epistemology: Core Concepts" »

Aristotle's Theory on the Powers of the Soul

The Vegetative Power: This power involves reproductive, nutritional, and growth functions. It is common to all living beings, with plants (vegetals) occupying the first place.

The Sensitive Power: This is more complex. Within this, two degrees of function can be distinguished: primary sensibility (proper to lower animals: pain, fear, and organic alterations) and higher sensibility (proper to superior animals: common sense, imagination, and intelligence).

The Intellective Power: This is the function of the higher soul, specific to the human being. It has two main functions:

• Intellectual: Aristotle refers to two types: the agent intellect and the patient intellect. The agent intellect is a cosmic intelligence

Cartesian doubt: From the philosopher Descartes. Questioned everything. From laexistencia the world to his own. Is to doubt everything will gradually be able to at least discover a truth beyond doubt. The only indubitable truth that was discovered by the "cogito ergo sum". I think, therefore I am.