Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Item 8 — The Appearance of Life

Being alive

Being alive: A set of atoms and molecules form a highly organized and complex structure of materials that are involved in molecular communication systems. These systems are related to the environment through an orderly exchange of matter and energy and perform the basic functions of life.

Characteristics of a living being

• a) Ability to transform matter into usable energy.
• b) Capacity for self-replication.
• c) Is complex and organized.
• d) Is self-supporting.
• e) Is not at equilibrium.
• f) Contains information on the processes that take place.

Biomolecules

Biomolecules: The molecules that make up living matter; they are composed of carbon and other elements.

Theory of spontaneous generation

Theory of spontaneous

Rationality and Fundamental Concepts

• Theoretical rationale: Knowing reality through universal concepts that are abstracted.
• Practical rationality: The strategy for living your best life, reaching our goals, and fulfilling our preferences as much as possible.
• Need: The basic component of a human being that affects their behavior because they feel the lack of anything to survive or improve.
• Contingency: The state of those events which, from a logical point of view, are neither true nor false. In this context, need is the opposite of an act or event that is contingent; a contingent event is one that could not have happened or taken place, or an act or event that is not necessary.
• Pragmatism: Current thinking where truth is whatever is effective, useful,

Formal Ethics (3.3)

Kant believes that formal ethical content does not tell us what to do, but rather determines how we act. Ethical imperatives are not hypothetical but categorical: they are binding and require compliance.

• The Principle of Universality: This does not dictate specific actions but prescribes the form that any maxim must take to become a moral norm.
• Human Dignity: We must treat others with dignity; human beings cannot be used as instruments to satisfy our desires.

For Kant, acting ethically means acting selflessly out of respect for duty. He distinguishes between acting legally (in accordance with duty) and acting morally (out of conviction for the sake of duty).

3.4 Postulates of Practical Reason

We can only be considered moral when... Continue reading "Kant's Formal Ethics and Postulates of Practical Reason" »

Aquinas on the Existence of God

The Summa Theologica is a highly influential work in theology and Christian doctrine. It is divided into three parts: the first part, "On God"; the second, covering ethical and moral issues; and the third, dedicated to the study of Christ.

The Problem of God's Existence

The question of God's existence is framed within the structure of reality. God is real, as are creatures, but God's being and existence are not derived from anything or anyone. Creatures, however, derive their being and existence from God. Created beings are contingent; they exist, but their existence is not necessary. God, on the other hand, necessarily exists.

This distinction highlights the difference between essence and existence. Created things... Continue reading "Aquinas' Proofs: The Existence of God Through Five Ways" »

El Sistema Fiscal Español

El sistema fiscal español constituye el conjunto de normas que tienen como objetivo establecer, identificar y organizar las formas de participación de los operadores en la financiación a través de los tributos. Su objetivo principal es proporcionar los diversos recursos financieros públicos para desarrollar las actividades que les son propias.

Los Tributos y la Ley General Tributaria

La norma básica que regula el sistema tributario en España es la Ley General Tributaria, la cual define las clases de tributos, los principios y las normas aplicables a cada uno de ellos. Definimos el tributo como una figura creada por ley que impone a los individuos la obligación de contribuir a los ingresos públicos.

Elementos

New Christianity Characteristics

New Christianity encompasses several key characteristics:

• Monotheism: Belief in one God.
• Creationism: The belief that God created everything from nothing.
• Timeline: Placing events within a historical context.
• Truth: Holding onto fundamental truths.
• Man: Created in God's image.

The Ethics of Epicurus

Epicurean ethics focuses on material well-being, defining good and evil based on their ability to achieve happiness. Pleasure is central to human nature, experienced as the absence of pain in both body and soul. Epicurus identifies three types of pleasure:

• Natural and necessary (e.g., food, rest)
• Natural but not necessary (seeking greater satisfaction)
• Neither natural nor necessary (e.g., wealth, honor)

To avoid pain and suffering,... Continue reading "New Christianity Characteristics: Monotheism, Ethics, and Knowledge" »

St. Augustine's Philosophy

Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)

Humans possess an innate inclination towards wisdom and true happiness. The certainty of one's existence is a knowledge the soul experiences directly. Beyond skeptical doubt, different levels of knowledge emerge:

• Sensitive Knowledge: Uncertain and susceptible to change and error.
• Rational Knowledge: Based on intangible, universal, and eternal models.
• Contemplation of Ideas: Wisdom is attainable only through divine illumination; the power of knowledge is not independent of divinity.

The Existence and Nature of God

Several arguments support God's existence:

• God's Effects: The order, beauty, and movement of the world reveal God.
• Universal Consent: A belief in a being superior to all things

Sanitation Eviction (1461, 1474)

The seller is liable for eviction (deprivation of the property based on a prior right). This occurs when the buyer is deprived of ownership because a third party demonstrates a superior, pre-existing right to the property.

Requirements:

• The buyer must experience demonstrable harm and final, irreversible deprivation.
• The deprivation must be based on a right established before the purchase.
• The eviction must be irreversible, judicially enforced, and total or partial (1475-1480).
• The seller must be notified of the eviction lawsuit within the legal timeframe. Eviction liability is presumed (1478).

Effects:

• Refund of the price at the time of eviction.
• Payment of proceeds or revenue, if awarded in court.
• Reimbursement for

Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact: Our mental contents are reduced to impressions and ideas, which form the basis of our thought experiments.

1. Relations of ideas: These establish relationships between ideas and concepts. Their truth depends not on experience, but on the meaning of the terms. Relations of ideas are universal and necessary statements; their negation is contradictory and absurd.
2. Matters of fact: These establish relationships among facts that must be verified through observation and experience. These claims are contingent; their negation is possible. Matters of fact often refer to the future. Relations of ideas and matters of fact are the only two types of propositions that can provide knowledge.

Critique of Metaphysics: Hume... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism: Relations of Ideas, Matters of Fact, and Critique of Metaphysics" »

Phase of Construction and Conduct

Implementation Phase Introduction

For the client who commissions the work, it is an investment from which they expect to get a return. For the contractor, the commission is performed by optimizing quality, cost, and time.

Stages of the Implementation Phase

The Site Visit

A regular, institutional, and agreed-upon meeting attended by legal representatives of the technical department, the client, and the builder to keep track of work, approve well-done tasks, propose new tasks, find new solutions to problems, and address all types of incidents.

Issues to be Addressed

• Work status: Check what has been done since the previous visit.
• Events: Accidents, rain, wind, or theft.
• Defects and Corrections: Two types of defects—those