Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Rise of Cosmetic Surgery

In recent years, the number of people undergoing cosmetic surgery to improve their appearance has increased significantly. According to Block and Sarwer (2013), "In 2011, 13.8 million cosmetic surgery and minimally invasive treatments were performed in the United States, an 87% increase in such treatments since 2000. The vast majority of these treatments were minimally invasive procedures."

Individuals who undergo these procedures are often influenced by evolutionary theories of physical attractiveness. Many seek to look younger or healthier, often disregarding the inherent risks of surgery. Conversely, some individuals reject the pressure to conform to beauty standards, choosing to embrace their natural physical...

Emblematic Art and Imagery

"In Occasionem"

The structure uses a question-and-answer format. The lady depicted is called “Occasio Calvata” (The Bald Opportunity/Passion). This image is part of a political pamphlet where the central idea is repeated consistently. The designs are repetitive: the image is surrounded by a frame, followed by the text. The woman in the image resembles a Venus figure.

"Pulchritudo sine fructu"

In this image, we see a tree—a cypress—in the middle of a hill. There are more hills behind it. One of the distant hills features a structure resembling a coliseum, and further back are more hills and mountains. They appear to be located on the coast. In the sky, we can observe only one cloud and four birds.

The Pre-Raphaelite

Matthew Arnold's Intellectual and Cultural Theories

The Concept of Disinterestedness in Criticism

Even colloquially, disinterestedness often carries a negative connotation; however, for Matthew Arnold, it signifies that a superior critic should remain focused exclusively on the intrinsic value of poetry. To focus solely on the poetry is not a negative trait. Critics should keep aloof—maintaining a sense of objective distance—from the practical view of things. Similarly, they should not be influenced by political considerations.

Arnold's idea of disinterestedness is of significant proportions. He posits that literature must maintain a disinterested voice so the reader can contemplate the work without disturbance. The writer should avoid writing...

Lemuel Gulliver

’s vivid and detailed style of narration makes it clear that he is intelligent and well educated, his perceptions are naïve and gullible. He has virtually no emotional life, or at least no awareness of it, and his comments are strictly factual. Indeed, sometimes his obsession with the facts of navigation, for example, becomes unbearable for us, as his fictional editor, Richard Sympson, makes clear when he explains having had to cut out nearly half of Gulliver’s verbiage. Gulliver never thinks that the absurdities he encounters are funny and never makes the satiric connections between the lands he visits and his own home. Gulliver’s naïveté makes the satire possible, as we pick up on things that Gulliver does not notice....

Essential Vocabulary Terms

• Adamant: Not giving in; stubborn.
• Amoral: Lacking a moral sense; without principles.
• Eccentric: Differing from what is customary; odd.
• Absolve: To find innocent or blameless.
• Encounter: A brief or unexpected meeting.
• Epitome: A perfect or typical example.
• Antagonist: An opponent; one who opposes or competes.
• Animosity: Bitter hostility.
• Malign: To make evil and often untrue statements about; speak evil of.
• Amiable: Good-natured; friendly and pleasant.
• Inclination: A tendency, or preference, to think, act, or behave in a certain way; a leaning.
• Curt: Rudely brief when speaking to someone; abrupt.
• Wary: Cautious; on guard.
• Retort: To reply in a quick, sharp, or witty way.
• Demoralize: To lower the spirits of; weaken the confidence

Descartes' Analysis of Ideas

In this text, Descartes presents his analysis of ideas. First, Descartes states that our ideas, considered as immanent content (internal content) of our mind, cannot be considered false. Then, after recognizing that we can only be wrong when we make judgments, he says that it is a very common mistake to assume that our ideas refer to external entities; otherwise, we would never be wrong. Finally, Descartes concludes by explaining his distinction between the three types of ideas: innate, fictitious, and adventitious.

Locke's Critique of Cartesian Innatism

In this text, John Locke presents his critique of Cartesian innatism. First, Locke states that the goal of this text is to refute the widespread belief in the existence...

Essential English Vocabulary

Here's a compilation of useful English words and their meanings, categorized for easier learning:

Common Verbs and Adjectives

• Over: Finished
• Complain: Say that you aren't satisfied
• Jumpers: Sweaters
• Down: Sad
• Fades: Become less bright
• Rise: Get up
• Sight: View
• Costumes: Clothes
• Tend: Are more likely
• Flicker: Move quickly
• Amazing: Wonderful
• Displays: Shows
• Dishes: Foods
• Such as: For example
• Truly: Really
• Join in: Do an activity with others
• Turn up: Arrive
• Share out: Divide
• Wet: Humid
• Cross: Angry
• Tough: Hard
• As: Because
• Harbour: Place on the coast...
• Loads: Many
• Scruffy: Dirty
• Crowded: Full
• Perform: Entertain an audience
• Stage: Platform
• Sightseeing: Visiting places
• Soak up: (British) Absorb
• Claim: Say that something is true
• Appeal: Be attractive
• Cater:

Essential English Vocabulary List

• Confine: "To limit an activity." Example: "Please confine your use of the phone to business calls."
• Fail: "To not succeed in what you are trying to achieve." Example: "He failed in his attempt to break the record."
• Engage: "To employ someone." Example: "I have engaged a secretary to deal with all my paperwork."
• Deal: "An agreement, especially in business." Example: "She got a good deal on her new house."
• Catch: "To take hold of something." Example: "He caught hold of my arm."
• Remove: "To take something away." Example: "This detergent will remove even old stains."
• Partner: "A person or organization you are closely involved with in some way." Example: "He gave up his job as a police officer after his partner was killed.

Essential English Vocabulary and Idioms

• Out of the blue: From nowhere
• Cold feet: To get nervous or back out
• Tip of my tongue: Almost remembered
• Over the moon: Very happy
• In deep water: In a lot of trouble
• Walk out on / Bail out / Pull out: To dump or abandon
• Be on board: To be in agreement
• Pull your socks up: To get serious or get your act together
• Waste of space: Useless
• Put your foot in it: To say something embarrassing
• Go blank: To become speechless
• To snipe: To look for the negative side
• Time flies: Time goes by very fast
• Slaving away: Working very hard
• Snowed under: Having a lot of work
• Keeping our heads above water: To survive
• Tighten our belts: To economize
• Things have picked up: Things have improved
• Little sleepy village: A place where nothing happens
• Tied

Oscar Wilde: A Literary Icon of the Victorian Era

Oscar Wilde's Early Life

Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin in 1854.

Academic Journey

He attended Trinity College and earned a degree from Oxford University.

Personal Life and Controversies

In 1883, he married Constance Lloyd, who bore him two children. However, he soon grew tired of his marriage. In 1891, he met Lord Alfred Douglas, with whom he had a homosexual relationship, leading to Wilde's imprisonment for homosexual offences.

Philosophical Influences and Aestheticism

Wilde was a disciple of Walter Pater and embraced the theory of Art for Art's Sake. He believed that only Art, as the cult of Beauty, could prevent the murder of the soul.

Public Persona in London

Settling in London, Wilde became a fashionable...