Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Technical vs. Practical Rationality

1 - The concept of technical rationality:

a) Animal behavior adaptation to the drive for survival can be considered an example of technical rationality to the extent that it is a skill used to achieve a certain purpose. Humans use this kind of rationale for self-preservation or self-assertion, to obtain benefits or follow dictates of vanity.

b) When humans apply this kind of rationality, it's about controlling power over our environment, external nature, or other humans. To the extent that we use something as a means to our ends, we objectify it, even a subject, i.e., a person. That is why technical rationality is strategic or instrumental and is guided by criteria such as efficiency, economy (media and effort)... Continue reading "Technical vs. Practical Rationality: Concepts & Applications" »

Kant's Practical Reason: Bridging Morality and Metaphysics

Transcendental Idealism, as proposed by Immanuel Kant, rejects the possibility of metaphysical knowledge (concerning God, the soul, freedom, etc.) through intellectual, scientific means. Scientific knowledge, for Kant, is limited to the phenomenal reality. However, Kant identifies one profound experience that can connect us to the metaphysical: the moral experience.

The Postulates of Practical Reason

This connection arises from the so-called Postulates of Practical Reason. These are fundamental propositions that cannot be proven by theoretical reason but must be admitted to understand the "moral factum" (the undeniable fact of morality). These postulates specifically concern:

• The existence

Understanding Professional Ethics

The concept of ethics applies to all situations in which professional performance should follow a system of both implicit and explicit moral rules of different types.

Professional ethics seeks to regulate the activities undertaken within the framework of a profession. In this sense, it is a discipline included in applied ethics as it relates to a specific part of reality.

General Professional Ethics

Professional ethics is intended to raise awareness of responsibility in each and every one of those who exercise a profession or trade. This stems from the assumption that every value is closely related to the idea of 'a good'. Professional ethics or decision-making is based primarily on the rational nature of man.... Continue reading "Understanding Professional Ethics Principles" »

Ortega y Gasset: Life as Radical Reality

Early Life and Career

O., born into a bourgeois family in Madrid with ties to journalism, pursued a doctorate at the University of Madrid and furthered his studies in Germany. He became a full professor of metaphysics at the Central University in 1919. During the following years, he alternated his university teachings with the publication of numerous books and articles. He also engaged in publishing initiatives, conferences in America, and political intervention, becoming one of the most important Spanish social and intellectual figures. O.'s thought is always open to the world and its problems. In his writings, he blends the intellectual depth of a philosopher with a treatment of the most current issues.... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy: Life as Radical Reality" »

Plato's Theory of Forms

It is not possible to give a common definition of objects that change continuously, unlike other beings. These beings were called "ideas." Things are separate ideas, but they are related. Throughout Plato's work, the term "idea" is mentioned, first in the Euthyphro about the idea of piety, where it means a model or criterion of truth. However, its definitive formation is found in the dialogues of maturity, especially in the Republic. The theory posits that ideas exist apart from particular things. They are not a "commonality" within things, nor are they concepts or mental representations. These are entities that have real and independent existence; every idea is a substance (ousia). The theory implies a doubling of the... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Forms and Hume's Problem of Reality" »

Understanding Philosophical Concepts and Thinkers

Inductive and Deductive Methods

Inductive Method

The inductive method is a scientific approach that derives general conclusions from specific premises. This common scientific method involves four key stages:

1. Observation and recording of facts
2. Analysis and classification of facts
3. Inductive derivation of a generalization from the facts
4. Verification or contrast of the generalization

Deductive Method

The deductive method is a scientific approach where the conclusion is implicit within the premises. If deductive reasoning is valid and the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

Pythagoras: Philosopher and Mathematician

Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher and mathematician, renowned for the Pythagorean... Continue reading "Understanding Inductive, Deductive Methods & Key Philosophers" »

Apollonian and Dionysian Principles

For Nietzsche, there are two fundamental principles that constitute reality. The Apollonian, linked to the Greek god Apollo, embodies reason, light, order, harmony, and balance, often identified with the plastic arts. The Dionysian, associated with the god Dionysus, represents life, chaos, instinct, and irrational desire, closely tied to music, poetry, and drama. Nietzsche believed that the pre-Socratic Greeks achieved a perfect synthesis of reason and life, united in a constantly evolving world (as seen in Heraclitus). However, after Socrates, the Apollonian principle gained excessive dominance over the Dionysian.

Master and Slave Morality

Nietzsche distinguished between two types of morality. Master morality... Continue reading "Understanding Nietzsche: Core Ideas and Principles" »

Freedom: Definition and Types

Freedom is the power that human beings have to act according to their intelligence and will. Types of freedom include:

• External Freedom: The absence of pressure from external forces, allowing the subject to act without complete coercion.
• Internal Freedom: Exercised in a supportive environment, where an individual can build their life and pursue self-imposed goals. This includes:
  • Freedom of exercise.
  • Freedom of specification.
  • Moral Freedom.
  • Biological Freedom.

Determinism and its Forms

Natural determinism is the idea that human beings are not outside nature, but part of it.

• Physical Determinism: Considers that while human beings are more complex than other objects, their actions are determined.
• Biological Determinism: Considers

Understanding Interpersonal Dynamics

Human relations refer to the interactions between individuals who consciously exchange information through language, gestures, and other forms of communication. These interactions are not always voluntary.

Personal Relationships: Voluntary Connections

Personal relationships are voluntary human connections based on our individual tastes and preferences. They involve several key aspects:

• Being Comprehensive with Others: This involves considering the needs, desires, and feelings of others.
• Being Critical of Prejudices: Refuse to judge someone before you know them and appreciate others for their behavior.
• Being Respectful: Respect the rights of others, especially their dignity. Things can have a price, but people