Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Chapter III: Sections 11 & 12

11. Fundamental Certainty: Individual Imperfection and Community Perfection

This concept typified medieval consciousness, stemming from profound anthropological convictions.

Three texts from different eras demonstrate this harmony: St. Augustine, bridging the ancient and early medieval periods; Hugo of St. Victor, the Parisian philosopher and theologian; and St. Thomas Aquinas, who systematized thought in the late 13th century.

Hugo of St. Victor's Hierarchia presents a universitas where plurality reduces to unity. Grace, while operating on individuals, finds its essential territory in the universitas. The individual is situated within the ordered unit, with responsibility as an exercise, not an entitlement.

Augustine'... Continue reading "Individual Imperfection and Community Perfection in Medieval Thought" »

Understanding Moral, Legal, and Social Norms

In today's pluralistic society, the legitimacy of political power can only be configured as rational-legal. Procedures must be established to ensure the agreement of all members of society regarding rules of social order and rules of coexistence. There are different types of standards that guide the conduct of individuals in society:

• Moral rules have a universal requirement, indicating how anyone should behave if they want to behave humanly. Each person has to assume these rules consciously and freely, as they are binding in conscience. These rules are the area of morality.
• Legal standards are set by the authorities within each political community and are addressed to all inhabitants of the territory.

1. Origin of the Concept of Citizenship

1.1. A Standard Definition

Citizen: An inhabitant of ancient cities and a modern political and legal subject involved in governing the country. Citizenship appears to have the following features:

• Membership in a political community that resides permanently in a territory.
• The enjoyment of rights that must be protected by the city, including the possibility of participating in the work of government.

1.2. Citizenship in Greco-Roman Antiquity

The term "citizen" comes from the Latin civis, a word that shares the same root as civitas (city-state). The term civis was reserved for those community members who met certain requirements. The rest of the population was not considered citizens.

In ancient Greece, the term... Continue reading "Understanding Citizenship: Ancient Roots to Modernity" »

Aristotle's Philosophy of Happiness

According to Aristotle, humanity aspires to a final goal, which unifies all purposes. All other goals are lesser purposes or means to reach this ultimate goal, which unifies, organizes, and prioritizes all others. For Aristotle, the ultimate goal is happiness (eudaimonia).

All human efforts and actions are directed towards this ultimate good inherent in human nature. It is necessary to specify what happiness is and how to achieve it. Aristotle states that happiness is not merely pleasure or wealth. While these may have some connection with the 'good life,' true happiness is understood as living according to the function most proper to humans.

The most characteristic function of human beings is derived from reason.... Continue reading "Aristotle's Pursuit of Happiness and Kant's Ethics of Duty" »

The Humanization Process: Evolution of Being

It is evident that bipedal posture permits arms to be no longer just a support for the body: the hands are free and can perform functions that were previously done with the mouth. The facial muscles weaken, allowing for language articulation. This distinguishes humans from animals.

The process of humanization begins the moment intelligence emerges. The human species develops its intelligence and its body because the quality of being human does not admit degrees.

The Greek philosophers claimed that humans were intelligent because they expressed themselves through their hands. Intelligence serves as a tool for acquiring knowledge.

The Human Being in the World: Rationality & Purpose

The human being is... Continue reading "Humanization & Self: Unraveling the Essence of Being" »

The word "ethics" comes from the Latin word meaning "sea." Actually, the word ethics is derived from "ethos," which is Greek for character. Thus, the relationship between the two concepts is clear. Whoever makes it a custom or habit to act responsibly ends up with a wise character or personality. This character, in turn, makes that person more responsible for their actions than the foolish. So, there is a close relationship between custom and character.

Ethics and Morals

Ethics and morals are not only etymologically akin. Currently, the terms are used interchangeably as synonyms. In philosophical language, a distinction is usually made between the moral code or rules governing proper action and ethics proper, i.e., reflection about morality.... Continue reading "Understanding Ethics, Morality, and Bioethics" »

Economy and Ideology in Marx

The term ideology was created to designate the science of knowledge, the set of ideas that characterize a time or a group of people, but over time, it acquired a negative meaning, which Marx maintained. For Marx, ideology is false consciousness; it is the belief that human thoughts are independent and only depend on brainpower. For him, ideas and beliefs are conditioned by the economy; material reality governs thought. In short, ideology tends to distort reality because, being dependent on the economic situation, it is a false consciousness, as he pointed out earlier.

Whoever controls the economy will control ideology. In capitalist society, the bourgeois class controls the economy and ideology.

Marx distinguishes... Continue reading "Marx: Economy, Ideology, and Alienation" »

The Problem of Metaphysics

In metaphysics, critical reason seeks to understand the reality of the speculative or theoretical, apart from sensory experience. Kant observed that this discipline was barely progressing, often regressing, and dominated by disagreements. He attributed this to the dogmatism of some philosophers and the skepticism of others. To resolve this impasse, Kant undertook a metaphysical inquiry that was critical rather than dogmatic.

Kant addressed the problem of metaphysics by distinguishing between scientific knowledge, moral philosophy, and dogmatic metaphysics. This distinction led to three consequences:

• The possibility of metaphysics as a theory about the foundations of knowledge and science.
• The possibility of metaphysics

Utilitarianism: Principles and Human Dignity

Bernard Williams on Utilitarianism

Bernard Williams, in his Introduction to Ethics (pp. 95-110), states that utilitarianism, as an ethical school of thought, has four characteristics:

• Utilitarianism of the Act and Utilitarianism of the Rule
  • 1. Utilitarianism of the Act: This involves a calculation of what course of action will maximize pleasure or happiness in each specific case or circumstance, without following a priori rules. Every action has consequences, and these consequences are what allow us to judge its value. Utilitarianism of the act is associated with Bentham.
  • 2. Utilitarianism of the Rule: This is an attempt to universalize criteria, and it is based on the utilitarian standard of "maximum

Impugning Dismissal in Spain

When facing dismissal, a worker has 20 business days, common to all dismissal types, to attend the Mediation, Arbitration, and Conciliation Service (SMAC) and file a conciliation request. This step is mandatory before initiating litigation in the Social Court. The conciliation must occur within 20 business days from the dismissal date. This act suspends the 20-day limitation period, and the count resumes the day after the attempted conciliation. The conciliation may result in an agreement or no agreement. If no agreement is reached, the worker can file a lawsuit before the Social Court.

Types of Dismissals

• Null Dismissal: Based on discriminatory grounds or violates the worker's fundamental rights and civil liberties.