Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The central theme of this text is the correspondence between levels of reality and Plato's theory of knowledge. For Plato, the quality of knowledge depends on the quality of the objects known.

Plato's Quest for Absolute Knowledge

Plato's obsession with finding absolute knowledge was motivated by its application in designing an ideal state model. We can relate Plato's philosophical position to that of the Sophists.

The Sophists' Relativistic View of Knowledge

The Sophists approached the issue of knowledge skeptically and relativistically:

• Skeptical: They believed there is no objective Reality.
• Relativistic: They held that things are what everyone perceives them to be.

This attitude led them to embrace convention, arguing that concepts like "truth,"... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge and Reality Levels" »

The Human Condition

Defining Humanity

Humanity is an animal by nature, social, and differentiated from other animals, capable of creating and transmitting culture through language. Culture is a group of knowledge, beliefs, and values shared by a society. Consciousness is the awareness of one's own existence.

• Humans decide their future, make decisions, and strive to be coherent.

The Human Being

A human being is a social entity who needs relationships with others to develop. Personal identity is the consciousness of oneself as a separate entity from the outside world.

Fundamental Questions

Humans grapple with various fundamental questions:

• Human Condition: Questions that directly attempt to answer life's great enigmas.
• Moral: Questions that directly

Liberalism: Ideology and Transformation

Liberalism is a set of ideological and political transformations that occurred in Europe and America between the late 18th century and the end of the Napoleonic era (1815).

Its principal declaration of rights, concerning Man and Citizen (1789), stated:

• The development of individual liberties, leading to the progress of society.
• The establishment of a rule of law, where all persons are equal before the law.
• The absolute separation of powers, represented by parliaments and the constitution.

The Labor Movement and the 19th-Century Working Class

The Labor Movement is a social movement seeking improved welfare for workers. It emerged during the Industrial Revolution due to the lack of rights afforded to factory workers.... Continue reading "19th Century Political and Labor Movements: Liberalism to Marx" »

Understanding Freedom: Internal & External Aspects

Freedom is the ability to choose, even when facing risks. It is the absence of external compulsion, allowing individuals to decide their own path (unlike slaves or the poor).

Inner freedom means no internal constraints limit our ability to choose (e.g., ignorance, fear).

External freedom encompasses social, political, and economic aspects, rejecting tyranny.

Inner freedom is cultivated by developing strength and autonomy through education.

Freedom is obtained through effort, a process of liberation from many internal and external constraints. It is a project, an idea we intend to realize.

Defining Personality: Temperament and Character

We not only choose our actions, but also shape our personality.... Continue reading "Principles of Personal Growth and Ethical Society" »

Grammar Essentials

Pronouns: Singular and Plural

Singular vs. Plural:

• 1st Person: I, me / We, us
• 2nd Person: You / You
• 3rd Person: He, she, it, him, her / They, them

Demonstrative Pronouns

This, that, these, those, mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.

Adverbs

• Place: Here, there, in front, behind.
• Time: Today, yesterday, still, afterwards.
• Manner: Well, wrong.
• Quantity: Very, little.
• Affirmation: Yes, well, sure.
• Negation: No, never.
• Doubt: Maybe, probably.

Prepositions

A, before, under, with, against, from, during, between, to, through, for, according to, on, after.

Literary Forms

Tragedy

Tragedy deals with serious or painful subjects. It produces wonder or compassion in the viewer, and the outcome is unfortunate.

Comedy

Comedy deals with happy, pleasant, or... Continue reading "Grammar Essentials and Literary Forms" »

Descartes

Descartes, a rationalist, believed that true knowledge comes from pure reason. He argued that the senses are misleading and do not provide a true vision of reality, citing illusory illnesses as an example. Geometry, based on pure reasoning, was considered the only reliable source of knowledge. Descartes also defended the existence of innate ideas—knowledge present from birth—such as the existence of God and infinity.

Hume

Hume, an empiricist, believed that experience is the only reliable source of knowledge. He likened the mind to a blank slate filled by lived experiences. Only what could be sensed was considered true and real, leading Hume to critique science, metaphysics, and religion.

Kant

Influenced by Hume, Kant sought to reconcile... Continue reading "Knowledge, Emotions, and the Human Experience" »

Descartes' Methodical Principles

a) Rule of Evidence: One should not accept as true anything that is not presented to our minds as clear and distinct. This means accepting only what cannot possibly be otherwise.

b) Rule of Analysis: Break down complex problems into simpler ones until reaching their fundamental elements. For example, a car can be broken down into simple parts and then reassembled.

c) Rule of Synthesis: Recompose the elements, starting from the simplest, to discover how they relate in complex problems.

d) Rule of Enumeration: After examining each part and drawing a general conclusion, conduct thorough reviews and general surveys to avoid any errors.

The Essence of the Method

The core of the method lies in the first rule: knowledge... Continue reading "Descartes' Methodical Principles for Truth" »

Theories of Evolution: Fixism and Lamarckism

1. Fixism: Georges Cuvier believed that all species are independent and remain unchanged over time since their creation.

2. Lamarckism:

• There is a gradual progression from simple organisms to others more complex.
• The mechanism by which changes occur is the gradual adaptation to the environment through the use and disuse of certain organs.
• The exercise of organs leads to their development and perfection. This led to the famous statement: "The function creates the organ."
• Inherited and acquired characteristics allow species to adapt better to environmental conditions.

Darwin and the Process of Natural Selection

3. Darwinism: According to Darwin, a struggle for survival ensues because resources are limited,... Continue reading "Evolution and the Nature of Human Intelligence" »

The Origin of Knowledge: Rationalism and Empiricism

When philosophers agreed that knowledge was possible, another controversy arose that has spanned the modern and contemporary eras. What is the origin of that knowledge? Where does the certainty from which to build the edifice of knowledge come from? Basically, there have been two approaches:

• Rationalists believe that the only reliable source of knowledge is the very process of reasoning and logic.
• Empiricists assert that all knowledge is based on information obtained through the senses.

Rationalism

Descartes is considered the father of rationalism. Other followers of this doctrine are Spinoza and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Rationalism defends the following theses:

1. Geometry as a Model of Knowledge:

Aquinas on Demonstrating God's Existence

This text belongs to Part I of the Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas. Specifically, it addresses the means Thomas used to rationally demonstrate the existence of God.

Knowledge from the Senses

To understand the meaning of this text, it is important to explain that Thomas, influenced by Aristotle, believed that knowledge originates from the senses. Thus, for Saint Thomas, rational discourse about God must start from the sensible world. The starting point is empirical, which leads to the demonstration of God's existence.

For Aquinas, knowledge of God is necessarily imperfect and analogical, based on the analogy that can be established between the limited, imperfect realities we know through our senses... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas: Proving God's Existence Through Reason" »