Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

1. Rights and Duties of Students and Non-Teaching Staff

Education plays a crucial role in transmitting societal values, fostering coexistence, and promoting mutual respect. As stated in Article 1 of Organic Law 1/1990 of October 3, on the General Organization of the Educational System, a primary objective of the educational system is to train individuals in respecting fundamental freedoms and exercising tolerance within a democratic framework.

Achieving this requires not only appropriate educational content but also a conducive learning environment. School regulations should cultivate responsibility, diligence, and effort, enabling students to maximize their learning outcomes and develop positive habits. Students must feel that these standards... Continue reading "Students' Rights & Duties: Fostering Responsible Learning Environments" »

Defining Science

Science is a type of knowledge distinct from ordinary knowledge. Ordinary knowledge often focuses on the result of an event, whereas a scientist questions its cause. Science establishes relationships between concepts and formulates laws, asserting that these relationships occur regularly.

Understanding Knowledge

A person knows an event if and only if:

• The subject believes in that event.
• The subject's belief in the event is rationally justified.
• The event is true.

Scientific Knowledge

The scientific community knows a theory if and only if:

• The scientific community believes in this theory.
• The scientific community's belief in that theory is rational and scientifically justified.

These conditions are also necessary; the scientific community... Continue reading "The Nature of Science: Concepts, Criteria, and Categories" »

Understanding Parts of Speech in English Grammar

In English grammar, words are categorized into different classes based on their function and meaning within a sentence. These categories, known as parts of speech, are fundamental to constructing clear and grammatically correct sentences.

Determiners and Pronouns

Determiners

Determiners are words that precede a noun to specify its meaning or reference. They help to clarify whether the noun is general or specific, and indicate quantity or possession.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that replace a noun, preventing repetition. They never appear with the noun they replace. Both determiners and pronouns carry significant grammatical meaning.

Articles

The article is a variable word that allows for variations in... Continue reading "Essential English Grammar: Understanding Parts of Speech" »

Historical Context (16th & 17th Centuries)

The Renaissance marked a return to classical ideals. In contrast, the Baroque period was a time of crisis, particularly for Spain, which lost its hegemony. Several problems arose:

Societal Shifts

After the Renaissance, the economic and cultural center shifted from Italy and Spain to France, Holland, and England. This led to a societal crisis:

• Economic Crisis: Agriculture-based economies suffered from poor harvests and famine.
• Social Hierarchy: Existing class structures began to crumble.
• Political Instability: Wars and revolts were common.

Religious and Intellectual Upheavals

• Religious Conflicts: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation caused tension between Catholics and Protestants.
• Scientific Revolution:

Dialectical Method

The dialectical method investigates the nature of truth through critical analysis of concepts and hypotheses. One of the earliest examples of this method is offered by the Greek philosopher Plato's Dialogues, in which the author undertakes the study of truth through discussion in the form of questions and answers. Plato's most famous student, Aristotle, understood dialectic as the search for the philosophical basis of science, and often used the term as synonymous with the science of logic.

The Idea of Good

The status and functions that Plato gives to the Idea of Good in his philosophy are such that many authors have identified it with God. This philosopher believed that the Idea of Good has two fundamental roles: it creates... Continue reading "Key Ideas in Plato's Philosophy" »

Language

A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or words that enables people to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. It studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

Pragmatics

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used. It studies how context contributes to meaning, considering factors like time, place, and social situation.

Metalinguistics

The study of language and its relationship to other cultural behaviors. It involves using language to talk about language itself.

Thinking

The process of using one's mind to consider or reason about something. It involves forming ideas, mental images, and understanding existence,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Language, Logic, and Reading Comprehension" »

René Descartes: Life and Philosophical Foundations

René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye, Touraine, France. He belonged to a family of minor nobility; his father, Joachim Descartes, served as a Counselor in the Parliament of Brittany. Due to the early death of his mother, Jeanne Brochard, a few months after his birth, Descartes was brought up by his maternal grandmother, with a nurse who remained linked to his life.

His famous work, Discourse on Method (1637), was followed by The Dioptrics, The Meteors, and Geometry, which served as tests of this new method. The success of these works led him to devote himself entirely to philosophy. Descartes, often in poor health and accustomed to staying in bed until midday for his writing,... Continue reading "René Descartes: Life, Metaphysics, and the Mind-Body Problem" »

Nietzsche's Philosophy: Vitalism and the Death of God

Understanding Nietzsche's Core Concepts

Nietzsche's thinking arose from the need to understand life as a vital impulse, and man in the biological and geophysical sense as being vital. It is, therefore, a thought that is part of vitalism and the philosophy of suspicion. It calls into question the values of his time. In particular, his thinking is considered an irrational vitalism because he believes that nature is not governed by rational principles. We also have to understand his philosophy from what it is: a philosophy of the thinking artist.

Nihilism: Negative and Positive Aspects

His thought consists of two phases, marked by the two sides of his nihilism: a negative side, criticism of the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Vitalism, Nihilism, and the Superman" »

Science

Science: Knowledge is systematic, rigorous, and objective. It consists of a set of descriptions, explanations, theories, and laws on the nature of things. It is based on observable data. It is a knowledge that is mathematicized, quantified, and subject to experimental verification. It is not evaluative knowledge.

Philosophy

Philosophy: Knowledge is systematic, rigorous, objective, and rational. It tries to understand things beyond the observable and measurable, but without falling into myth, belief, or unsupported speculation. It is specifically rational knowledge. It is justified rationally. It addresses human and social issues. Philosophy, unlike science, is valuable and not only explanatory.

Religion

Religion: It is a type of explanation... Continue reading "Understanding Human Behavior: Science, Philosophy, Ethics, and Morality" »

Understanding Determinants

Determinants are words that precede nouns to specify or describe them. They include:

• Articles: These determinants precede a noun to indicate whether it is specific or non-specific. Examples include:
  • Definite Article: the
  • Indefinite Articles: a, an, some
• Demonstratives: These words accompany nouns to indicate their proximity or distance from the speaker. Examples:
  • Close Proximity: this, these
  • Further Proximity: that, those
• Possessives: They accompany nouns to show possession or ownership, referring to a single owner or multiple owners. Examples: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
• Numerals: These determinants indicate quantity or order. They can be:
  • Cardinal Numbers: one, two, eight, etc.
  • Ordinal Numbers: first, second, eighth,