Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

What Are Incoterms and When Are They Used?

Incoterms are defined and developed by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), with the aim of establishing a standardized language that can be used by buyers and sellers involved in international business.

Key Incoterms Explained

EXW - Ex Works

The seller's only responsibility is to make the goods available to the buyer at the seller's premises (factory, warehouse, etc.). The buyer bears all costs and risks from that point.

FCA - Free Carrier

The seller must deliver the goods, cleared for export, to the carrier or another person nominated by the buyer at the named place. The seller loads the goods if delivery occurs at the seller's premises.

FAS - Free Alongside Ship

The seller is responsible for placing

Collectivism: Defining the Social Machinery

Collectivism is a concept in which the individual is merely one piece of the social machinery. Its primary intent is to ensure the vitality and continuity of the whole group. Therefore, the individual is only relevant in relation to the operation of the social machinery, possessing no inherent value, and is considered perfectly interchangeable and replaceable. This philosophy tends to promote forms of social organization and management aimed at seeking the common good.

Totalitarianism and Individual Freedom

Totalitarianism refers to dictatorships of the State, where the interests of the State are paramount. This system is usually synonymous with a lack of individual freedoms, as those freedoms can threaten... Continue reading "Defining Core Concepts: Individualism, Collectivism, and Social Structure" »

Understanding Adverbial Subordinate Clauses

Adverbial subordinate clauses perform the characteristic function of adverbs: the circumstantial complement of the verb within a sentence. They are classified into two main categories:

• Own: These are equivalent to an adverb and, therefore, can be replaced by one. Own adverbial subordinates indicate place, manner, and time.
• Improper: These indicate circumstances that cannot be expressed by a single adverb. Improper subordinates include conditional, concessive, causal, final, consecutive, and comparative clauses, which cannot be replaced by an adverb.

Adverbial Subordinate Clauses of Time

The adverbial subordinate of time indicates the time when the action of the main verb occurs. They can be replaced by... Continue reading "Mastering Adverbial Subordinate Clauses in Grammar" »

Practical Knowledge, Morality, and Law

Practical Knowledge provides us with a set of rules or laws necessary for societal living, the violation of which can result in a fine. This knowledge encompasses several dimensions:

• The Moral Dimension: Oriented toward personal conduct and relationships with others.
• Politics and Law: Operate within the social and public sphere.
• Religion: Helps us feel connected to other people and the world.

The Role of Morality

Morality helps us achieve self-satisfaction by proposing ideals of a good life, offering advice, and sharing experiences embodied in values and norms.

• Laws affect members of a given state, while moral standards are intended to guide all people.
• Sometimes, in accordance with our moral guidelines, we consider

Alternative Definitions of Truth

A primary challenge regarding the correspondence theory of truth is avoiding a vicious circle. Truth is defined as stating what is real—that which is objective and exists in the world. However, the only path to determine what is real is through existing theories about reality.

For this reason, alternative theories have emerged:

• Truth as Coherence: This theory posits that knowledge is true if it does not contradict other established beliefs. Any statement that can be integrated into a system of beliefs without contradiction is considered true. Consistency is essential in formal sciences like mathematics, though it does not guarantee correspondence with reality in empirical sciences such as physics or chemistry.

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

This text delves into the philosophy of René Descartes, a prominent figure born in 1596 in Touraine, France, who passed away in 1650 in Sweden. He is recognized as one of the leading representatives of Modern Philosophy and is widely considered the father of Rationalism. His most important work, Discourse on Method, outlines the necessity for a new philosophical method, fundamentally based on mathematical deduction. Other significant works include Meditations on First Philosophy (often referred to as Metaphysical Meditations), Treatise on the World, Principles of Philosophy, and Rules for the Direction of the Mind. Descartes's thought emerged as a significant outcome of the Humanist and Scientistic movements. He became the chief representative... Continue reading "René Descartes: Architect of Modern Rationalism" »

La Libertad: Freedom and Moral Autonomy

Freedom as a Presupposition of Morality

La Libertad. The ideas of metaphysics are presented theoretically or scientifically, but when they are assumed as conditions of the possibility of morality they have a different significance. Freedom is a presupposition of morality: we cannot speak of morality unless we begin by accepting that human beings can be free.

Phenomenal and Noumenal Aspects of the Human

A human being can be considered as a natural, sensitive (phenomenal) subject to the laws of nature, but may also be considered as a free subject of rationality and free will that allows one to rise above or be thought of apart from the laws of nature (noumena). If we take the human as merely natural and believe... Continue reading "Freedom and Moral Autonomy: Metaphysical Foundations" »

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »

Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)

Immanuel Kant was a man of manners who followed a very precise routine. The people of the city set their clocks by his afternoon walk: every day he went through the same place at the same time. He led a life that was, strangely, very interesting. He never married, never fell ill, and did not leave his hometown in East Prussia. However, Immanuel Kant was a great thinker. He died at age 80.

Kant's Philosophical Revolution

We come to know things when men reach their limits. From this issue arises a revolution, manifested in an illustrated project.

Awakening from Dogmatism

It starts with an awakening. Kant says that this awakens philosophy from the dream of all dogmatic philosophers. Kant's metaphysics leads to a trial court:... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Philosophy: Reason and Knowledge Limits" »