Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Kant's Philosophical Foundations

Immanuel Kant was born in Germany in 1724.

Historical Context

From modernity to the Enlightenment: The pre-revolutionary France was ilustrado. Despotism reigned. In England, however, the king reigns but does not rule.

Revolutions Illustrated

• Glorious Revolution in England (1688)
• Independence of the Colonies (1776)
• The French Revolution (1789)

In Germany, despotism prevailed. Kant faced censorship problems during this time.

Cultural Context

The Enlightenment was a new cultural, political, social, and educational movement that gradually spread across Europe and America.

• The Rise of the bourgeoisie and early steps of liberalism.
• Confidence in reason.
• Confidence in education and knowledge.
• Confidence in progress.

Philosophical

Human Rights: Basic Requirements

Universal

These are basic requirements for anyone who wants to be recognized as such. These requirements state that every person deserves the highest respect and consideration. Therefore, you should recognize all human beings without exception. Every human being must be treated as such, as someone who has the same dignity as others. Universality is the requirement. Please refresh, although echoed in many places, they are not recognized yet.

Preferential

That is, if they conflict with other rights, they have priority and must be protected as a priority. For example, the right to life and health are more important than other secondary rights.

Imprescriptible

That is, they do not expire or prescribe. If they have no... Continue reading "Understanding Human Rights: Principles and Actions" »

Communication, Signs, and Texts

Communication is the process by which an issuer transmits a message to a receiver. A sign is something that suggests the idea of something else. A text is a complete message that is transmitted orally or in writing.

Types of Text

• Informative: Informs us of facts.
• Persuasive: Aims to convince the receiver of an idea.
• Prescriptive: Tells us something (e.g., a manual on how to do something).
• Literary: Tries to create an impression or aesthetic experience.

Classes of Text According to the Speaker

• Narrative: Tells a real or fictitious account of facts.
• Descriptive: Displays traits that define people or objects.
• Expository: Explains facts, concepts, or phenomena.
• Argumentative: Defends a viewpoint with reasoning.

Classes of nouns:

Community and Reciprocity

The myth of Protagoras distinguishes human groups based on community. It blurs the line between public and private spheres. A community is a group of people with shared beliefs and values, willing to compromise for collective goods. Relationships within a community are direct, multilateral, and encompass various functions.

Generalized Reciprocity: Primarily occurs in domestic settings. It involves exchanging goods or services without immediate return, fixed prices, or a need for balanced trade.

Balanced Reciprocity: Exists between different groups, often expanding beyond blood relatives, within a village or tribal context.

Society and This

Life in large societies creates a constant tension between the desire for social... Continue reading "Community, Reciprocity, and Justice: Exploring Social Order and Legal Theories" »

Civil Society vs. Political Society

Locke's Distinction and the Liberal State

Locke was the first philosopher to distinguish between civil society and political society, emphasizing the need for a liberal state to protect individual liberties. Hegel's liberal thought assigns the state the task of applying universal goodwill to particular situations. In present-day democratic societies, civil society is considered the most suitable environment for individuals to exercise their liberties.

Naturalistic Theory

Naturalistic theories posit that society precedes the individual, arguing that society is a necessary condition for human life. Several prominent philosophers have supported this concept:

1. Plato argued that humans are not self-sufficient and

Understanding Morality and Ethics

Morality: The set of behaviors, norms, and values that govern a society at a given time.

Ethics: The theoretical reflection on the behaviors, norms, and values that shape morality.

Conscious acts mean that the subject must clearly know what they are doing. Voluntary acts mean that the subject must want to do what they do, choose between various options, and choose without fear or coercion.

Aristotle

Property: That by which human beings work, not as a means to get something, but as an end in itself.

Happiness: Involves the exercise of reason.

Moral Understanding: The force that leads human beings to act in ways that achieve the nominated property.

Epicurus

Seek pleasure through reason and prudence.

Nature: Overcoming... Continue reading "Understanding Morality, Ethics, and Key Philosophies" »

Superman

According to Nietzsche, there are two different moralities: the master and the slave. The master creates their own moral code, while the slave adheres to a code they lack the courage to challenge. To establish a master morality, the creative Übermensch (superman) is necessary. The Übermensch embodies the will to power, overcomes nihilism, and creates a new set of values. They reject slave morality and herd behavior, possessing the capacity and determination to create values faithful to life. The Übermensch lives finitely, accepts life's meaninglessness, and faces existence's terrors bravely. They embrace risk, suffering, and life's intensity, opposing egalitarianism. In essence, the Übermensch is the energetic affirmation of life,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Superman, Nihilism, Eternal Return" »

Dialectical and Hermeneutical Methods

Dialectical method: (Thesis, antithesis, synthesis)

Hermeneutical method: Understanding documents

Branches of Philosophy

Ontology: A Study of Being

Onto: be / Logos: study

Fundamental Questions

• What is being? It cannot be reduced to a more general concept because it does not exist.
• Who is being? This involves pointing out what is being and distinguishing it from what is not being authentic. This is explained in...
• Being itself: Cannot be reduced to another.
• Being in another: Can be reduced, therefore, it is not being.

Heraclitus: Everything flows.

Parmenides: Being is not non-being. There cannot be a movement from one being to another because there is nothing in the middle.

Qualities of Being

• Immutable and static
• Infinite
• One

Epistemology:

1. Augustine on Faith and Reason

Augustine believed that reason alone is insufficient to reach the truth due to its inherent limitations. He argued that reason must submit to faith to attain true understanding.

2. Thomas Aquinas and Aristotelian Philosophy

Thomas Aquinas adopted Aristotelian principles but selectively, rejecting elements that contradicted Christian doctrine, such as the eternity of the world or the non-immortality of the soul.

3. The Renaissance

What Constitutes the Renaissance?

The Renaissance, originating in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries, marked a transition to the modern age through the recovery of Greco-Roman culture.

Features of Renaissance Humanism

Renaissance Humanism emphasized:

• Recovery of classical texts
• The concept

Truth in Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine overcame skepticism. He argued that even if humans are prone to error, this does not imply the absolute negation of truth. His argument analyzes human error. The error reveals a primary truth: if I am mistaken, I exist.

Knowledge of the Truth

Saint Augustine's path to the knowledge of truth involves:

• Rejection of the senses: Sensory experiences cannot reveal truth because they are contingent, not absolute.
• Internalization: Only through the internalization of the soul can one know absolute truth and wisdom.
• Epistemological Significance: The soul contains objects of a higher nature. Therefore, the soul must seek the light and the foundation of truth outside itself. Saint Augustine states, "If you find that your