Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Origins of Scientific Inquiry and Knowledge

The scientific attitude begins by questioning the phenomena of reality, seeking to understand their underlying causes. From these probable causes, descriptions are formulated.

The source of this attitude can be traced back to figures like Galileo, often considered the father of modern science. This pursuit of knowledge translates to episteme, a concept contrasted with doxa (common opinion).

Plato considered episteme to be the highest form of knowledge, while doxa was mere opinion about contingent things. Aristotle, on the other hand, conceived of knowledge as an integration of sensory experience and mental abstraction. Crucially, knowledge requires language for its expression and development.

Therefore,... Continue reading "Scientific Knowledge: Foundations and Reasoning Methods" »

Hume's Emotive Moral Theory

Hume's moral theory is a key part of his plan to build a science of human nature with scientific rigor comparable to that achieved by Newton in the natural sciences. The science of human nature does not end with the explanation of knowledge, but must include a justification of the principles governing human behavior.

Hume's ethical theory is based on the refusal to accept that reason can be the foundation of moral life. Moral rationalism has been the dominant ethical explanation since the beginning of philosophy, with the exception of the moral theory of the Sophists. Hume considers that moral rationalism has made an error, as it confuses the field of theoretical philosophy and practical philosophy by not drawing clear... Continue reading "Hume's Emotivism: The Role of Feelings in Moral Judgments" »

Foundational Questions and Shared Commitments

The theories of knowledge proposed by Plato and Marx represent two distinct yet interconnected approaches to a fundamental question: What is the reality we need to know? Despite radical differences in their philosophical systems, both thinkers shared a profound commitment to transforming the societies in which they lived through philosophy. Just as Plato was a political thinker aiming to reform ancient Athens, Marx was a political thinker seeking to change the social reality of the 19th and 20th centuries through his philosophical insights. However, the distinctions between these two influential authors are profound.

Contrasting Ontologies: Idealism Versus Materialism

A primary divergence lies in their... Continue reading "Plato and Marx: Divergent Paths to Social Transformation" »

The 17th Century: A Transformative Era

Sociopolitical and Religious Landscape

The 17th century, often associated with the late Renaissance and early modern period, was marked by significant crisis and anxiety, leading to numerous rebellions. The Protestant Reformation had shattered religious unity, which was met with the Counter-Reformation.

Religious conflict across Europe culminated in the devastating Thirty Years' War, which concluded in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. This landmark treaty formally recognized religious tolerance among states.

Politically, the century was dominated by absolutism, exemplified by the model of Louis XIV of France. Simultaneously, the rising bourgeoisie sought to limit monarchical power, advocating for individual... Continue reading "The 17th Century: Philosophy, Conflict, and Enlightenment" »

Fundamental Concepts of Ethics and Morality

This examination delves into the historical moral philosophy, its structure, and origin. However, it extends beyond mere description, aiming to develop a transcultural moral system—a universal framework valid for all cultures, which we term "ethics." This pursuit utilizes three core concepts:

• Moral: A normative system within a society that defines what constitutes good and bad behaviors. Morals are diverse, varying significantly across different cultures.
• Philosophy of Morality: The study of morals as an integral part of human culture, analyzing their genealogy and criteria for validity.
• Ethics: A moral-cultural framework developed through reason, drawing upon the moral experiences of those within a

Understanding Philosophy and Key Concepts

Etymology of Philosophy

Philo (friend or lover) + Sofia (wisdom) = Love of wisdom.

Origins of Philosophy

Birthplace: Ionia, 6th century BC.

Exploring Myths and Logos

Understanding Myths

Myths turn to legendary characters. They are imaginative or fantastic stories. The author is always unknown and collective. They have a traditional and uncritical character.

The Transition from Myth to Logos

The passage from myth to logos involves the emergence of rational thought and reflection (logos), which takes the place of the traditional mythic explanations uncritically accepted (myth).

Defining Philosophy

Key Features of Philosophy

• Rational: Based on logical arguments.
• Systematic: Requires that all claims are related and

State Formation Methods

How does a state begin to exist? States can arise in several ways:

• A colony declares independence from its motherland.
• Two or more states merge to form a new state.
• New states emerge from the dismemberment of an existing state.
• A community establishes a state in a terra nullius (territory belonging to no one).

In each case, a state legally exists when its essential elements are met. The principle of effectiveness prevails in international law. A mere declaration of independence is insufficient; the lack of legitimacy from the former ruling entity does not prevent state formation.

State Extinction

States can cease to exist through:

• Fusion: Two or more states unite to form a new, larger state, losing their original identities.
• Incorporation/

1. How Augustine understands the relationship between faith and reason?
The reason itself is not enough for alkane enough to reach the truth, because by nature is limited, weak and imperfect. Reason must submit to the faith. 2. What makes St. Augustine with Plato's philosophy? Explain. Theory of Knowledge. Adaptation of Plato to Christianity. Man must seek the truth in the outside, because the sensitivity is too unstable. Only in the interiority of the soul will find the sage wisdom. 3. What historical event promotes historical reflection of St. Augustine?
A) The two cities in a work of St. Augustine which was first carried out a philosophy of history. From 410, the pagans to Christianity accused of being responsible for the ruin of the... Continue reading "Medieval philosophy as a confluence of faith and reason" »

Descartes: *Res Cogitans* and Mechanism

The First Principle: *Cogito Ergo Sum*

Applying the first rule of his method—to accept only clear and distinct ideas—Descartes concludes that the first glimmer of truth is "I think." From this, he raises the fundamental question: "What am I?"

Descartes' Conception of Substance

To explain the essence of the self, we must understand these concepts:

• Substance: That which needs nothing else to exist (only applicable absolutely to God).
• Mode: That which needs a substance to exist.
• Attribute: The essential characteristic of a substance.

Descartes distinguishes three types of substances:

1. The self, whose attribute is thinking.
2. God, whose attribute is perfection.
3. The world, whose attribute is extension.

*Res Cogitans*

Historical Materialism: Marxist Theory of Society

Historical Materialism is the Marxist theory of history, a materialist philosophy that interprets societal development.

Hegel vs. Marx: The Driving Force of History

For Hegel, the dialectical unfolding of history is driven by the Idea; for Marx, it is driven by Matter.

Marx's Materialism: The Common Person as Hero

Marx's materialism asserts that the common person is the hero of history, based on these fundamental claims:

• The Relationship Between Humanity and Nature & Other People: These constitute material relations. People utilize natural resources to produce material goods to satisfy their needs. Marx termed this the social production of life.
• Ideology's Origin: These material relations give