Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Introduction to Metaphysical Themes

Heinz Heimsoeth reduced the key and recurring themes of metaphysics in the West to six, which coincide with the fundamental problems of philosophy in general:

1. God and the World
2. Infinity and the Finite
3. Soul and the External World
4. Being and the Individual
5. Life
6. Intellect and Will

Christian Wolff, conversely, considers the parts of philosophy and its thematic areas to be four: Ontology (Being), General Cosmology (World), Rational Psychology (Soul), and Natural Theology (God).

Although the issues raised by Wolff and Heimsoeth appear different, they are co-implicated. One can hardly treat the philosophical question of God without addressing associated concepts such as those of infinity and finitude, and vice versa.

The Question

Modern Social and Political Theories

Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan, discusses the social contract, where power is relinquished for societal order. He describes the state of initial human nature as a hypothetical situation of homo homini lupus (man is a wolf to man), where human nature is inherently destructive, leading to conflict and self-destruction. The welfare state, or life in society, necessitates suppressing destructive instincts and passions for security, achieved through acceptance of the law. The sovereign, possessing absolute power, represents this law, ensuring survival.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the noble savage, an innocent primitive without original sin, proposes innate human goodness. Social... Continue reading "Modern Social and Political Theories: Hobbes, Rousseau, Aristotle" »

Will to Power

Zarathustra is the prophet of the will to power. The world, man, and life are capable of volition. Nietzsche does not clearly define it, but the expression is frequently used. It is the will of the psychologists. In Schopenhauer, or perhaps where Nietzsche says there is no will, it is voluntary for nothing, or the truth is a volunteer for life. On the contrary, life is voluntary power, and this is to be more, live longer; it is voluntary to create. It is a set force of will to power. Nietzsche is interested in moral values because the will to power is the voluntary creator of values.

Eternal Return

This concept comes from the mythology of the Pre-Socratics. In the 'power volunteers,' Nietzsche attempts to reject the linear view of... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Will to Power and Eternal Return" »

Nietzsche uses the figure of Zarathustra to develop and link the four main elements that are present throughout his work and are exhaustively treated in this book: Death of God, the Übermensch, the Will to Power, and (although not explicitly developed) the eternal return of the identical.

Zarathustra is a hermit who lives secluded in the mountains, where he reflects on the life of man and nature. Once he feels the time is adequate, he decides to return to the world to share the fruit of his knowledge.

Death of God

Nietzsche notes that 'God is dead,' meaning that God is no longer a central force in our culture. Society is no longer primarily moved by religious sentiments but by political, economic, or scientific reasons. This is why Nietzsche... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Core Ideas in Zarathustra" »

GAIA: Truth and Knowledge

To Know: Philosophical Stances

• Dogmatism: Without doubt, it is true. People are sure they know the truth (sineskortasuna).
• Skepticism: It is impossible to get any reliable knowledge because there is not enough evidence to confirm.
• Subjectivism: There is no universal truth. What is true is available only to each subject; everything is relative, depending on each person's point of view.
• Pragmatism: That which is true is what is useful.
• Criticism (Kritizismoa): It attempts to answer how far the capacity of our knowledge can reach, addressing dogmatism and skepticism.
• Perspectivism: Reality can be known, but different points of view must be taken into account. By bringing together these different viewpoints, the truth can potentially

Religious Education Competencies 11–20

11. Linguistic Competence

Linguistic competence constitutes the very essence of competence in a belief-based curriculum for religion. It uses language as the primary element for understanding reality and for organizing knowledge.

12. The Four PISA Competencies

In 1997 the OECD launched the PISA project to produce indicators of student performance. PISA assesses students' preparedness to face life. The four assessed domains are:

1. Mathematics
2. Reading
3. Science
4. Problem solving

13. New Profile of Teaching Religion

The new profile of teaching religion includes ten characteristics:

1. Active nature
2. Reality of the environment
3. Role concepts
4. Curriculum objectives
5. Active methodology
6. Real situations and environmental problems
7. Shared

Truth and Adequacy

It is based on the correspondence between thought and reality, that is, between thought and deed. It rests on three basic principles: there is an objective reality external to thought, the truth is the concordance between thought and reality, and rational knowledge is the mental representation of reality, facts, and processes.

Truth is the conformity or fitness between thought and reality. Therefore, if we have trials (the truth is given in trials) in which the predicate affirms or denies something of the subject, if the affirmation or the negation matches facts, it is true, and if not, it is false.

Application of Truth as Adequacy: Realism and its Classes

Realism is the theory that supports the ontological distinction between... Continue reading "Understanding Truth: Adequacy, Realism, and Consistency" »

The Research Project

The Role of the Research Project

The role of a research project is to provide a comprehensive and specific framework for how an investigation should be conducted. It outlines what is to be known, how that knowledge will be acquired, and what insights are intended to be gained.

Defining the Research Project

The Project as a Research Map

The project serves as the map of the research: it charts the planned path to navigate the complex realities of the social phenomenon under investigation. When presented as a proposal to a sponsoring institution or a funding agent, it represents a comprehensive commitment from the researcher to the empirical study and the social phenomenon being addressed.

Methodological Design in Research

The term... Continue reading "Research Project Design and Implementation Strategies" »

Understanding Ethical Theories and Moral Foundations

According to the motives that drive human beings to act, two fundamental types of ethical theory have developed: teleological and deontological.

Ethical Theory Fundamentals

Teleological Ethics

• State that action should produce a specific end.
• Aim to resolve conflicts between interests and standards.
• Moral action should pursue happiness and justice.

Deontological Ethics

• Do not share the vision of humanity as a seeker of happiness.
• What defines a human being and sets them apart is their legislative autonomy.
• Action must be based on the duty imposed by reason.

Bases of Morality: Types of Moral Norms

Moral norms are categorized by their origin:

External Foundation

• The origin of the rules lies in something external