Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

From Myth to Logos: A Shift in Thinking

The transition from myth to logos signifies a fundamental shift in mindset: the capacity to conceive of myths yielded to the rational approach of Philosophy. This transformation in thinking unfolded in Greece during the Archaic period of its history (8th-6th centuries BCE). Throughout this era, certain individuals began to challenge both the mythical interpretations of reality and traditional mythical religion.

Mythical explanations of reality, presented as truths, gradually failed to satisfy human curiosity. Consequently, by the 6th century BCE, early philosophers emerged, who demanded objective testing and demonstration, essentially seeking rational explanations rather than narratives. The traditional... Continue reading "From Myth to Logos: The Rise of Rational Thought" »

Ethical Materials and Formal Ethics

Ethics materials: Bad acts, heterogeneous good acts, and formal ethics with an emphasis on freedom.

Aristotelian Ethics

Aristotelian ethics: All human beings by nature form habits that lead to happiness (felicidad). Two classes: Positive: achieving happiness; Negative: the absence of virtue and happiness. Aristotle says virtue is a mean between extremes; reason identifies the mean and the prudent person (prudente) chooses it. Virtue as a mean is a point between extremes. Aristotle also says a person is happy when they have good behavior and some luck (suerte). Contemplation is the highest virtue and the fullest exercise of the mind.

Scholastic Ethics

Scholastic ethics: Moral ideas developed in Christian schools.... Continue reading "Ethics, Kant, Nietzsche and International Human Rights Covenants" »

Metaphysics: God, Mind, and Reality

Metaphysics delves into the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, between substance and attribute, and between potentiality and actuality. A central figure in this exploration is the concept of God, often defined as an infinite being.

Saint Anselm's Ontological Argument

Saint Anselm, utilizing an existing argument, posited that God, being an infinite and all-powerful being, is perfect. If God is a perfect being, then God must possess all possible attributes. A perfect being is that which lacks nothing. Therefore, God cannot be deprived of existence, as a lesser being would be imperfect. Thus, God must exist.

The Significance of God's Existence

The existence of God is... Continue reading "Descartes' Metaphysics: God, Mind, and Reality" »

Modes of Philosophical Understanding in Greek Culture

In Greek culture, philosophy is understood in several ways:

• Possession of the Truth about Nature: Nature is the set of all things that exist. Those who seek the truth of nature are often called physicists or physiologists.
• Vision of Being: The philosopher is concerned about what things are. The philosopher is aware of the being of things and how they come to be or cease to be.
• Rational Science of Things: Philosophy is an inquiry intended to understand what each thing is, allowing us to distinguish and differentiate things.
• Rhetoric and Culture: Human reason can teach things to others. There is no knowledge without the ability to articulate, communicate, learn to argue, and teach.

Philosophy and

Aristotle: Happiness and Virtue

Ends are sought as means to higher ends, but if we seek an end in itself, that end must be the highest good. Aristotle asserts that this highest good is happiness.

The Goods and Intellectual Activity

Aristotle identifies three types of assets (goods):

• External goods
• Goods of the body
• Goods of the soul (the most important, goods par excellence)

Happiness consists in the exercise of man's highest activity, which is not vegetative or merely sensitive, but intellectual. Therefore, the supreme good of man, his happiness, lies in intellectual activity.

Understanding Arete (Virtue)

The word arete, translated as virtue, signifies a way of being or human excellence. Something is defined as virtuous because it fulfills its appropriate... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics and Augustine's Philosophy of Faith" »

The Body and Soul

Departing from the Pythagorean idea of the body as the soul's prison, St. Augustine, influenced by the incarnation of the Word, exalts the human body. Regarding the soul's origin, Augustine admits uncertainty between the prevailing theories of Tertullian's traducianism (parental generation) and St. Jerome's creationism. He believes, however, that the souls of Adam and Christ were divinely created.

The Soul and God

Central to Augustine's thought are the soul and God. Understanding humanity necessitates inquiring about God, as humanity is incomplete without God. The human soul, mirroring the Trinity, is also one and triune in its capacity for mind, knowledge, and love. "Therefore, the mind, its knowledge, and love are three,... Continue reading "St. Augustine's Philosophy of Soul and God" »

The Emergence of Philosophy in Ancient Greece

The appearance of philosophy in Greece coincided with a flourishing of trade and freedom of expression, particularly in relation to Egypt. The solar eclipse of 585 BC is often cited as a marker for the birth of philosophy.

Birth of Rational Discourse

The shift from Mythos to Logos (from myth to reason) marked the beginning of rational discourse focused on understanding the natural world.

• Egypt: Contributed writing, arithmetic, and astronomy.
• Greece: Focused on reflecting upon knowledge (filo-sofia).

Early Philosophers and Their Ideas

The first philosophers sought to understand the physical world using Logos, a rational approach to understanding things. They aimed to comprehend the natural world through... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Philosophy: Origins and Key Thinkers" »

Foundations of Society and the State

Core Functions of Society

Every society performs three fundamental functions: political, economic, and cultural.

Defining the State

The state can be defined as a political organization that:

• Divides society into rulers and ruled.
• Is linked to a specific community (nationals and foreigners).
• Is coupled with an established border territory.
• Possesses an economic system (e.g., ownership of property).
• Governs relations between people (e.g., types of family associations).
• Operates as a legal system backed by the legitimate use of force.

Plato's Innate Drives and Societal Needs

According to Plato, humans coexist with three types of innate drives:

• Concupiscible: For the pleasure of the senses.
• Irascible: Encourages heroic action

Language in Communication

Language, an interpersonal communication system, serves three primary functions:

• Representative: Linguistic signs symbolize and represent states of affairs.
• Expressive: Linguistic signs manifest the speaker's internal states.
• Appellate: Linguistic signs act as signals, eliciting a reaction from the receiver.

Dimensions of Language

Words, as part of a linguistic code, form the basis of communication across all languages. Three core dimensions shape language:

• Syntactic: This dimension governs the relationships between signs. Syntactic rules dictate word order within phrases and sentences. For example, a sentence like "Transmit a dog does not bite me" is syntactically flawed.
• Semantic: This dimension concerns the relationship