Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche's Philosophy: 19th Century Context

Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy emerged during the second half of the nineteenth century, a period marked by significant revolutions across Europe. The ongoing struggle for rights and freedoms fueled the rise of liberalism and socialism, ideologies that played a crucial role in the Revolutions of 1848. These uprisings, however, were met with suppression, repression, and persecution of the burgeoning labor movement.

Concurrently, powerful nationalist movements gained traction in Germany, culminating in German unification and the establishment of a state under Prussian hegemony. Otto von Bismarck spearheaded this movement, and a young Nietzsche initially shared these nationalistic ideals. In France,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Historical Context and Key Influences" »

Human Action

Human action is a conscious and voluntary act caused by human behavior, resulting in a specific event. It must be personal, intentional, and conscious. Human actions have several key elements:

• Intention: The conscious trends and acceptance by the subject that initiate an action. Intentions are mental and can only be inferred by others.
• Purpose: The aim that the subject consciously and explicitly tries to achieve through the action.
• Motivation: The combination of intention and purpose that drives the action. Motivation is the effect of the action.
• Consequences: The events or states caused by the action. Consequences depend on the resources used and the knowledge possessed. Unintended consequences are common and raise the issue of the

Hume's Empiricist Theory of Knowledge

Hume's Theory of Knowledge, unlike others, is skeptical. This means it doubts the possibility of developing concepts of universal value based on facts that are constantly changing and transforming (e.g., the concept of 'I' or personal identity, the physical world). Hume considered the senses the only possible source for knowledge. Before him, many other philosophers linked knowledge to experience—to data obtained through the senses. This was the case, for example, with Aristotle who, against his teacher Plato, argued for sensitive experience as the origin of ideas. For Aristotle, we can only speak of the concept 'man' after knowing individual men (like Raymond or Augustine). In this sense, his approach... Continue reading "David Hume's Empiricism: Knowledge from Senses and Skepticism" »

Nietzsche's Core Ideas

The Death of God

The "death of God" thesis states that belief in God, and by extension, belief in any absolute entities, is dead. Belief in God served as a comfort against the misery and suffering in this world. When Nietzsche declared that "God is dead," he meant to indicate that humanity lives disoriented, no longer guided by the ultimate horizon in which it has always lived. With this "death," humanity cannot live without the Absolute in the "innocence of becoming." It is the condition for the appearance of the Übermensch (superman).

Culture that believes in an absolute reality with objective values like Truth and Good is, for Nietzsche, nihilistic. He saw the entire Christian and Western culture as nihilistic, directing... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Death of God and Übermensch" »

Classifying nouns according to their meaning is complex, as it involves establishing an order for the realities or beings they designate. However, understanding the traditional classification is essential, as it is the most common:

Common Nouns vs. Proper Nouns

Common nouns designate all members of the same class (e.g., pine, balcony). Proper nouns identify or individualize a being distinct from others of the same class. Proper nouns for people are called anthroponyms (e.g., Gabriela, Eduardo), while those for places are called toponyms (e.g., Madrid, Júcar).

Proper nouns, used to designate individual beings, often accept the plural form. They typically reject the article, except in specific cases:

1. When the proper noun is specified:

• You are advised

Understanding Your Vocation

Your destination is an imperious tendency toward a particular way of life for the realization of your potential. Vocation is a force that operates both inside the individual, pushing them to act in pursuit of their life project, and outside, where the needs of society provide a real and concrete framework for its expression.

It is the inner force that drives and energizes a person to be held in society. This force is a double called Vocation: EXTERIOR (requirement of the company) and INTERNAL (internal needs).

Justice as the State's Purpose: Plato

Some thinkers believe the State's main function is to ensure justice, a view held by Plato. However, discrepancies arise when defining justice.

Justice: A Virtue of the Soul

Plato believed humans are composed of body and soul. The soul has three parts:

• Rational (knowledge)
• Volitional (ambition and will)
• Appetitive (desires)

Each part has a specific virtue:

• Rational: Wisdom/Prudence
• Volitional: Strength/Courage
• Appetitive: Temperance

According to Plato, justice exists when each part of the soul fulfills its respective virtue.

Justice and Social Order in Plato's Republic

Plato's Republic describes a just state analogous to the human soul, with three classes:

• Philosopher-Rulers (wisdom)
• Guardians/Warriors (courage)
• Producers

Karl Marx: A Critical Analysis (1818-1883)

Karl Marx's work critically analyzes bourgeois capitalist society, its production model, and the interpretation that society holds regarding reality, human beings, and their history. His primary aim is to move philosophy beyond the mere interpretation of the world, seeking instead to transform this unfair, unequal, and exploitative world for the majority of humanity.

For Marx, the human being is the fundamental principle of society and the subject of history. Therefore, the study of humanity must form the basis of any theoretical conception of the world and history.

Key Features of the Marxist Conception of Humanity

• The human being is a natural being, but possesses no fixed or innately given nature; rather,

Augustine's Inner Search

Augustine is a major figure in Christian philosophy. He believed that God is the source of all reality, truth, and goodness. For Augustine, the search for God begins with self-examination. He believed that God knows us from within, and the soul, as an image of God, is the starting point for this quest. Augustine rejected the Platonic idea of finding truth in the external world, instead advocating for an inner quest to analyze the contents of consciousness.

Faith and Reason in Augustine's Thought

Some Christian philosophers believed that faith lies beyond human capabilities and rejected reason's interference. Augustine, however, saw faith and reason as complementary. He believed that God gave us reason and that religion... Continue reading "Augustine's Philosophy: Faith, Reason, and Divine Illumination" »

A Century of Crisis

René Descartes (1596-1650) developed his philosophy during the 17th century, a period marked by political and religious upheaval. This crisis led to a loss of established foundations, resulting in doubt and a search for new certainties.

Key Characteristics of the 17th Century

• Absolutism: The absolute authority of the monarch, mirroring Descartes' aim to establish absolute knowledge.
• Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church's efforts to maintain Christian unity through the Inquisition, leading to religious wars like the Thirty Years' War (in which Descartes participated).
• Baroque: An artistic movement expressing transience, pessimism, and disorder, exemplified by figures like Molière, Calderón de la Barca, Cervantes, Velázquez,