Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

EM Parables: Storytelling in Education

Parables (stories told) are an excellent educational tool. They suggest rather than impose. Stories and practical actions are better guides than rigid rules. Principles and empirical evidence support this approach.

Partial MS Approaches: Dilemmas and Narratives

1. Dilemmas focus on problem-solving, not character description. The protagonist's virtues are fundamental. The goal is finding a solution, not detailed descriptions.

2. Dilemmas demonstrate social characteristics.

3. Dilemmas are open-ended. Each person decides the conclusion.

In stories versus dilemmas, adults convey a judged narrative.

Contrarily, non-directive education posits that adults should not impose values. "Every child is a moral philosopher... Continue reading "Moral Education: Methods, Dilemmas, and Storytelling" »

Transcendental Aesthetic

The term 'aesthetic' is Greek and means sensation. The term 'sensitivity' is often used in philosophy to describe the ability to receive sensations. Kant defined sensitivity as the ability of the subject to be affected by external realities; through sensitivity, the aforementioned objects are given to us. Sensitivity is the first step of all knowledge because only through it is our knowledge related immediately to the actual exterior. Sensations are given *a posteriori* and are the signals that meet at sensitivity. We do not receive raw feelings, but these are presented as ordered in certain relations. That is, how sensations appear is already an *a priori* form in the spirit. Kant also called this pure intuition, reserving... Continue reading "Transcendental Aesthetic and Dialectic in Kantian Philosophy" »

Aristotle's Critique of Plato's Ideas

Aristotle critiques Plato's Theory of Ideas. Aristotle focuses his philosophy on the sensible world. Plato believed the world of ideas is the true reality, and the world that surrounds us is merely an imperfect copy of those ideas. Aristotle initially agreed with this doctrine but later developed doubts, which eventually turned into strong criticism and rejection.

There are three main criticisms:

1. First, if the sensible, material world around us is an imperfect copy of the ideas, then logically everything that exists must have a perfect model. This would imply a 'perfect model of evil.' Aristotle argues we cannot accept that everything negative and bad in the world has a perfect counterpart in the world of

Government and Society: The Perfect State

The State: The state is a perfect society that has all the means to achieve its goal, and it is necessary for defense, peace, economics, etc. The church is a society superior to the state and must be subjected to it, as this does not prevent achieving an end.

The Individual: In relations between the individual and the state, all sorts of things are kept, and since the individual is part of the state, laws should be ordered to the common good. Man is not simply a member of the state but a human being who must tend toward the supernatural end. The state's sovereignty is not absolute but is limited.

• By Natural Law: The sovereign has to legislate, apply, and define natural law, because natural precepts are

Sophists: Common Features

The Sophists were a group of educators from 5th century BC Athens who taught young people various arts, finance, law, and linguistics for a fee. They possessed great eloquence and were masters of language. This, combined with their broad understanding of laws and societies, prevented them from forming unified schools of thought. While each Sophist had unique ideas, they shared common traits:

• Experts in education and language instruction.
• Great speakers.
• Skeptical, ranging from moderate to radical.
• Advocates of relativism due to their skepticism.
• Agnostic regarding religion.
• Believers that societies should be governed by positive laws based on human will, not unknowable natural law.

Physis and Nomos: Socrates and the Sophists

In... Continue reading "Sophists & Socrates: Physis vs. Nomos in Ancient Athens" »

Descartes' Discourse on Method

Descartes' Discourse on Method aimed to develop objective metaphysics. After the new science, metaphysical sciences did not evolve. Metaphysical roots support physical science. Mathematics is an introduction to metaphysics.

Deductive Method in Metaphysics

1. Criteria of certainty
2. Analysis
3. Synthesis
4. Revision and enumeration

Methodical Doubt

Methodical doubt involves looking for clear and distinct ideas. Sources of doubt include:

1. The senses
2. Wakefulness and sleep
3. The evil genius

Acquired, Artificial, and Innate Ideas

1. Acquired ideas: Thinking substance (outside world)
2. Artificial ideas: Human invention
3. Innate ideas: Not from my reality, but of foreign origin or infinite perfection, i.e., God.

Infinite perfection substance is not deceiving.... Continue reading "Descartes' Method: Metaphysics and Dualism" »

Understanding Moral Reasoning

The Moral Practical Reason for Moral Action: Essentially, human behavior (conscious and free), controlled by values and rules (expressions of such values) that allow us to distinguish between morally good and bad.

Conscience and Moral Awareness

Conscience: Awareness is the ability to move humans to notice something.

Moral Science and Principles

Moral Science: The ability of practical reason to capture the moral principles which can distinguish between morally good and bad. The individual must be aware of the following elements:

• The Reasons: Impel us to act in one way or another.
• The Purpose: To want to achieve and moves the will.
• Means: To be used for the end result.
• The Result: The achievement of the end pursued.

Piaget

Creationism vs. Evolutionism

Creationism

Henry M. Morris, considered the father of scientific creationism, states that the Earth was created by God just before the universal Flood. Utilizing the watchmaker analogy, proponents argue that human beings exhibit so many signs of intelligent design that simply listing them serves as a compelling argument for God's existence.

Evolutionism

The scientific community widely accepts that all life has evolved from a single type of living creature or initial life forms, and that living things have changed throughout Earth's history. Every species, whether fossilized or living, has originated from a preceding species. Evolution is, therefore, a well-supported scientific fact.

Facts: Data observed in the world.... Continue reading "Creationism vs. Evolutionism: A Comparative Analysis" »

Thomistic Principles: Aristotle's Influence

St. Thomas Aquinas retains many Aristotelian principles to explain the material world, incorporating elements from Plato's system. Thomistic metaphysics is therefore both Platonic and Aristotelian.

Preceding thinkers, including St. Thomas, sought to understand what distinguishes the world and what explains its existence. Through an analysis of the concept of creation, St. Thomas concluded that the difference between God and other beings is that they are created. In contrast, God necessarily exists and cannot not exist; He is necessary being.

Essence and Existence

This led Aquinas to distinguish between essence and existence, defining essence as what things are—their inherent nature—and existence as... Continue reading "Thomistic Principles: Aristotle's Influence on Existence" »

The Evolving Meaning of Work in Society

The meaning attributed to work and its social, political, or religious role has not always been the same. Generally, work is the action through which human beings attempt to respond, revealing their capacity for invention and their power to transform nature.

Ancient Greek Perspectives on Work and Life

Greek philosophy conceived of the human being as one who knows, who yearns to contemplate the truth. When someone was forced to perform necessary tasks simply to survive, it was considered a servile life. Aristotle spoke against the domination of men in this context. The Greeks distinguished between two types of life:

• Private life: Serving the needs of life, which ought to remain hidden.
• Public life: Relating