Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Unnatural Morality

Unnatural morality, according to Nietzsche, is a morality of the weak and embittered, directed against the vitality of the body and its passions. It posits a superior "world of reality" whose attainment requires sacrifice in this life. Unnatural morality emerges in opposition to natural morality, which is the morality of the strong, based on the will to power and an appreciation of this life. Any morality that requires sacrifice and mortification in this life for the sake of another life beyond is deemed unnatural.

Transmutation of Values

Transmutation of values: Nietzsche does not propose living without values, believing that to be impossible. Instead, he invites us to overturn the existing table of values. This involves overcoming... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Unnatural Morality and Transmutation of Values" »

The Need to Demonstrate the Existence of God

Thomas Aquinas posited the need for a demonstration of the existence of God. According to some opinions, such as those of Saint Anselm, such a demonstration is unnecessary since the existence of God is clear and evident, and only what is not clear and evident needs proof. However, Thomas Aquinas's opinion differs. According to him, a demonstration of the existence of God is necessary precisely because it is not self-evident that God exists.

To explain this statement, Aquinas distinguishes between two types of self-evident propositions:

• a) Propositions self-evident to us (humans): Where we know the subject and predicate and immediately conclude that the predicate is included in the subject. For example,

Family Rights and Social Order

It is against natural law for any human to remove the primary right to marry, or to restrict the main purpose of marriage established by God: "Be fruitful and multiply".

The family, though small, is a true partnership, older than any other, with its own rights and duties, independent of civil power. Ownership rights conferred by nature are transferred to the man as head of the family, and this right is stronger as a person in society encompasses more domestic responsibility.

The rights and duties of the family are prior and more natural than those of civil society. If public authorities harm families instead of helping them, society would be worthy of condemnation.

It is a great error for civil power to arbitrarily... Continue reading "Family Rights and Social Order: A Natural Law Perspective" »

Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans (570-497 BC)

Pythagoras was born on the island of Samos, Ionia. He later moved to Greece, where he founded his philosophical sect. Influenced by Eastern disciplines, such as Zoroastrianism, he became very famous and was considered a legend, even the son of Apollo. His doctrine reflected on the body and soul, believing the soul to be immortal and imprisoned by the body. The Pythagoreans also believed in reincarnation. Central to their philosophy was the liberation of the soul through spiritual work, which included philosophy, mathematics, and music, to create harmony and regularity in man. They posited the existence of fundamental principles underlying the concrete and changing world. Pythagorean thought heavily... Continue reading "Pre-Socratic Philosophy: From Myth to Reason" »

Nietzsche's Superman

The Dionysian Influence

The Dionysian excess and tragic longing permeates Nietzsche's view of humanity. As he states in Beyond Good and Evil, "Man must be educated for war, and woman for the rest of the warrior. All else is madness." Nietzsche's anthropological reflection, while varied, consistently distinguishes between ordinary individuals and great individuals.

Free Spirits vs. Supermen

In Human, All Too Human, Nietzsche refers to distinguished individuals as "free spirits." These individuals are detached and adaptable, capable of embracing new perspectives and actions. They stand in contrast to "free thinkers," the Enlightenment figures of the 18th century who fought against the feudal regime and advocated for egalitarianism.... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Superman: A Philosophical Examination" »

Current Rating of the Text

The utopia of the ideal state in Plato's Republic introduces valuable principles, some of which seem lost today:

• The rule of reason
• Concern for the public good to ensure responsible governance, not interested in personal use of the position (a stance against corruption seen in other political systems)
• The importance of education for both rulers and citizens
• Government involvement in the happiness of citizens
• The equality of women relative to men

However, we also find reprehensible aspects, taking into account the risks of this totalitarian system. If everything is driven by power, such as private property and the family (spouse and children), and considering issues of interest in the educational program, we seem to be overriding... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Reason, Governance, and the Ideal State" »

Philosophical Concepts

Observational Consequences

Consequences derived from a general law, which may not be universally agreed upon by all observers.

Practical Philosophy

The branch of philosophy that reflects on human action.

Socialization

The process through which individuals learn and prepare to live according to social norms.

Freedom

The state of an act not being dictated by an external entity or individual.

Disclaimer

Providing a rationale for an act or event as its author.

Institution

A human group organization recognized by law and custom.

Device

A small-scale institution where specific types of subjectivity are created through practical actions and discourse.

Subject

A being capable of maintaining a relationship with the external world.

Moral

Derived... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Philosophy and Social Sciences" »

The Shift from Renaissance to Baroque

Don Quixote embodies the transition from the optimism of the Renaissance to the disillusionment of the Baroque. In the first part of the novel, he is optimistic. However, in the second part, following experiences like the Cave of Montesinos and facing disappointment, he becomes more pessimistic, ultimately repudiating his chivalric ideals.

The Baroque Era: A Time of Disenchantment

The Baroque period reflects a sense of disappointment following the Renaissance's optimism.

Structure and Narrative

The novel's structure is accumulative (adventure + adventure). However, due to its length, there's a shift in the first part: Don Quixote initially journeys alone, but later travels with Sancho Panza, enriching the narrative... Continue reading "Don Quixote: From Renaissance Optimism to Baroque Disillusionment" »

What is Knowledge?

Knowledge is justified true belief. To apply the theoretical rationale, the knowledge obtained has the following features:

• Knowledge implies conviction. States of doubt or ignorance do not correspond to those of knowledge. Knowledge requires certainty that ensures safety and having good reason to believe something.
• Knowledge is a belief.
• Knowledge is true. If we believe in something that is false, it cannot be ascertained.
• Knowledge is justified. A belief held without good reasons cannot be considered knowledge.

Attitudes Towards Knowledge

• Ignorance: When it is unknown whether a statement is true or false.
• Doubt: If one is not totally convinced of something.
• Conviction: When one is certain of something.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking... Continue reading "Understanding Knowledge and Rationality" »

Historical and Sociocultural Context of the Enlightenment in Germany

Kant, one of the most important figures of the 18th century, along with the American and French Revolutions, defined the Enlightenment as the mental attitude by which man decides to leave his self-imposed immaturity, using his reason without the guidance of another. The Encyclopedia was a key work of this period.

The German Enlightenment

The German Enlightenment had its peculiarities. There was an increase in population and a relative improvement in the economy (higher agricultural yields and the inception of industry). Germany was divided into small states with an almost feudal structure (nobility, bourgeoisie, peasants).

The state of Prussia stood out. After economic and... Continue reading "German Enlightenment: History, Society, and Philosophy" »