Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Distinction Between Science and Opinion

The distinction between science and opinion is fundamental. Science grasps the essence of reality, understanding its inherent nature and interconnections. Opinion, however, only perceives an image based on superficial appearances. The path of science is arduous, akin to a battle, yet it is the sole true way. Those dedicated to science may seem detached, living in a profound pursuit of truth. For them, the ultimate liberation lies not in death, but in the continuous ascent towards true knowledge.

Defining Key Concepts

• Essence: What constitutes reality itself.
• Science: The knowledge of true being.

Plato's Two Worlds: Ideas and the Sensible

In philosophy, Plato posited a radical distinction between two realms:... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Unveiling Reality and True Knowledge" »

The Problem of Knowledge: Epistemology

Hume is the most important author of the school of empiricism. Empiricism states that all our knowledge comes from experience. Hume denies the existence of innate ideas in reason, prior to experience, since our mind is like a blank page on which nothing is written at birth (tabula rasa).

He distinguishes two elements of knowledge (or "perceptions"): impressions, more vivid mental representations received by the senses (external or internal); and ideas, which are representations or copies of past impressions in the mind, characterized by being less lively. Both impressions and ideas can be simple or complex.

Ideas can be associated or connected according to three basic laws: the law of similarity, the law... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism: Knowledge, Morality, and Politics" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Conceptual Knowledge

Becoming

The future is characterized by dynamic flow, not stasis. Throughout the history of philosophy, some authors have attempted to fix the future, rendering it static. Nietzsche believes that development is incomprehensible to reason, and this is precisely what philosophers have tried to bring order to chaos.

Idolaters of Concepts

This expression refers to Nietzsche's critique of traditional philosophers. These philosophers, clear examples of a life in decline, in their hatred of the future (a concept Nietzsche termed 'Egypticism'), have attempted to impose an order on reality and an unreal stability. They do this by reifying concepts, classifying them specifically to then worship them.

Nietzsche'

Nature and Culture

Introduction

Throughout the history of philosophy, the terms nature and culture have been used as totally different. Homo sapiens has not changed for thousands of years in nature. However, culture has had changes (new inventions, new ideas, etc.). But the development of culture cannot be understood without man undergoing changes that allow nature to think and use language. In the process of humanization, it is important to consider the nature of man and culture, as both go hand in hand and complement each other. That is, you cannot understand the natural man separated from the cultural man.

The Confusion Between Nature and Culture

There is confusion in people thinking that everything that comes from nature is good, while everything... Continue reading "Human Nature and Culture: An In-Depth Analysis" »

Nietzsche: Nihilism

Nietzsche criticized the metaphysics and morality of slaves in the Western world, who despised the sensible world. He believed this had led to the decline, the annihilation of the will of man.

If Dionysus represented everything vital, strong passions, music, and so on, with the arrival of Platonism to Greece and then to Christianity, the values are reversed: life is sentenced, it devalues the sensible world for the benefit of the supersensible.

This devaluation, after two millennia of Christian rule, leads to nihilism, when God and the supersensible world lose their value in the currency of modernity. This is symbolized by Nietzsche with the expression "God is dead." It will be passed to say "God is truth," to say "everything... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Understanding Nihilism and the Will to Power" »

The Existence of the World

Having demonstrated the existence of God, who is perfect, the possibility of self-deception and the possibility of an evil genius constantly deceiving me are eliminated. Therefore, the stated reasons for doubting both mathematical and general intelligible truths, as well as truths derived from the senses, are removed. Since God exists and is perfect, He cannot allow me to be deceived into believing that the world exists if it does not. Thus, the world exists.

The Structure of Reality: Three Substances

Descartes distinguished three levels of reality:

• An infinite substance (God), which is the ultimate cause of the other two substances.
• The thinking substance (Self), also known as the soul.
• The extended substance (the World)

Hume's Moral Philosophy: Feelings, Empathy, and Reason

For Hume, freedom is the power to act or not, according to the determinations of the will. The moral distinction lies between virtuous action (morally approved of) and vicious action (not morally approved of). This approval does not come from internal impressions or innate nature. Instead, it stems from feelings and emotions, as nature only provides facts, and moral valuations require more than just pure facts.

Hume distinguishes two types of feelings:

• The Direct: These are tendencies that spontaneously evoke feelings of pain or pleasure in certain situations.
• The Indirect: These arise from thought, stemming from an idea developed from an external impression. This reflection is caused by passion.

Descartes and Locke on the Causes of Error

Descartes: Causes of Error

Descartes posits a conflict between will and understanding as the root of error. The will, he argues, desires to extend beyond the boundaries of understanding.

He identifies a hierarchy of ideas:

• Innate ideas: Possessing the highest degree of certainty, originating from God. Examples include the cogito and adventitious substance.
• Adventitious ideas: Possessing a lower degree of certainty, with God serving as the guarantor of truth. An example is factitious extension.
• Factitious ideas: False ideas stemming from the imagination, representing arbitrary inventions.

Locke: Causes of Error

Locke attributes error to several factors:

• Insufficient evidence
• Inability to discover evidence
• Unwillingness

Plato: Historical and Cultural Context

Plato was born after the death of Pericles. Athens and Sparta were engaged in the Peloponnesian War, marked by inequalities in political administration. Sparta eventually defeated Athens, leading to the establishment of the Government of the Thirty Tyrants, which failed, and democracy was restored. With the rise of King Philip of Macedonia, the city-state was elevated. There was significant social division, with the aristocracy embracing democracy, which in turn led to demagoguery, a political system that Plato did not approve of. An economic crisis occurred, although cultural life was at its peak. Education was highly valued, based on stable knowledge and learning.

Philosophical Context

Pythagoreans: Plato... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ideas, Context, and the Theory of Forms" »

For Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle's theory, the ultimate human goal is happiness, achieved through the realization of human potential. Thus, to determine moral standards of behavior, we humans rely on knowledge and reason.

Natural Moral Law: Aquinas's View

God created the world and its development, imposing a set of laws known as the eternal law. Natural law is a part of this eternal law and refers to human behavior that is dictated by reason. The rules governing human conduct, according to natural law, are:

• As a substance, humans tend to preserve their existence.
• As an animal, humans tend to reproduce.
• As a rational being, humans tend to know the truth and live in society.

Achieving these tendencies is considered the natural good.

Natural