Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Grammar Essentials

Pronouns: Singular and Plural

Singular vs. Plural:

• 1st Person: I, me / We, us
• 2nd Person: You / You
• 3rd Person: He, she, it, him, her / They, them

Demonstrative Pronouns

This, that, these, those, mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.

Adverbs

• Place: Here, there, in front, behind.
• Time: Today, yesterday, still, afterwards.
• Manner: Well, wrong.
• Quantity: Very, little.
• Affirmation: Yes, well, sure.
• Negation: No, never.
• Doubt: Maybe, probably.

Prepositions

A, before, under, with, against, from, during, between, to, through, for, according to, on, after.

Literary Forms

Tragedy

Tragedy deals with serious or painful subjects. It produces wonder or compassion in the viewer, and the outcome is unfortunate.

Comedy

Comedy deals with happy, pleasant, or... Continue reading "Grammar Essentials and Literary Forms" »

Descartes

Descartes, a rationalist, believed that true knowledge comes from pure reason. He argued that the senses are misleading and do not provide a true vision of reality, citing illusory illnesses as an example. Geometry, based on pure reasoning, was considered the only reliable source of knowledge. Descartes also defended the existence of innate ideas—knowledge present from birth—such as the existence of God and infinity.

Hume

Hume, an empiricist, believed that experience is the only reliable source of knowledge. He likened the mind to a blank slate filled by lived experiences. Only what could be sensed was considered true and real, leading Hume to critique science, metaphysics, and religion.

Kant

Influenced by Hume, Kant sought to reconcile... Continue reading "Knowledge, Emotions, and the Human Experience" »

Descartes' Methodical Principles

a) Rule of Evidence: One should not accept as true anything that is not presented to our minds as clear and distinct. This means accepting only what cannot possibly be otherwise.

b) Rule of Analysis: Break down complex problems into simpler ones until reaching their fundamental elements. For example, a car can be broken down into simple parts and then reassembled.

c) Rule of Synthesis: Recompose the elements, starting from the simplest, to discover how they relate in complex problems.

d) Rule of Enumeration: After examining each part and drawing a general conclusion, conduct thorough reviews and general surveys to avoid any errors.

The Essence of the Method

The core of the method lies in the first rule: knowledge... Continue reading "Descartes' Methodical Principles for Truth" »

The Origin of Knowledge: Rationalism and Empiricism

When philosophers agreed that knowledge was possible, another controversy arose that has spanned the modern and contemporary eras. What is the origin of that knowledge? Where does the certainty from which to build the edifice of knowledge come from? Basically, there have been two approaches:

• Rationalists believe that the only reliable source of knowledge is the very process of reasoning and logic.
• Empiricists assert that all knowledge is based on information obtained through the senses.

Rationalism

Descartes is considered the father of rationalism. Other followers of this doctrine are Spinoza and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Rationalism defends the following theses:

1. Geometry as a Model of Knowledge:

Knowledge in the Modern Age

The understanding of reality in the modern age shifted from passive reception of sensory information to an active role of the subject in constructing knowledge.

Two Positions in Modernity

1. Empiricism: Knowledge originates and culminates in experience derived from sensory information. The empiricist view posits the human mind as a blank slate upon which knowledge is imprinted.
2. Rationalism: The mind constructs reality through reason, distrusting sensory information and seeking innate ideas. Senses play a secondary role in this theory.
3. Kant's Conciliatory Position: Senses provide the raw material of knowledge, but human reason organizes it in a specific way common to all.

From Sensation to Concepts

Sensations

All beings share... Continue reading "Knowledge and Language in the Modern Age" »

The Sensible and Intelligible Worlds in Plato's Philosophy

The Relationship Between the Sensible and Intelligible Worlds

Plato explores the connection between the sensible (perceptible) and intelligible (conceptual) realms through several key ideas:

1. Participation: Ideas are fundamental beings, and physical things gain their existence by participating in these ideas.
2. Imitation: Physical things are created by a Demiurge (divine craftsman) who imitates the eternal Forms or Ideas.
3. Purpose: Ideas serve as the cause of all occurrences, as things strive towards a soul-body ratio idea.

Soul and Body

The union of the soul and body is considered accidental and superficial, with the body acting as a prison for the soul. Plato views the body as an impediment,... Continue reading "Plato's Theory: Unveiling the Sensible and Intelligible Worlds" »

Knowledge and Empiricism

Hume, taking empiricism to its ultimate consequences, refused to formulate hypotheses, arguing that the passage from particular experience to general law cannot be rationally justified. He sought to discover psychological laws and base knowledge on them, setting real limits to what we can know. Hume stressed that our ideas are merely representations of reality, and the laws of nature are never certain. He identified two elements of consciousness: impressions (perceptions) and ideas (representations of impressions in the mind). Ideas derive from impressions and are weaker, less vivid versions of them. Ideas can be simple or complex, but there are no innate or abstract ideas. An idea is true if it corresponds to a sensory... Continue reading "David Hume: Empiricism, Skepticism, and Morality" »

The Social Contract: Creating Political Order

A social contract is an agreement that creates a state. Its aim is to benefit individuals and improve their situation. The resulting political system varies depending on how the contract is designed: between whom it is made, for whom it is made, and whether it is revocable.

Key Thinkers on the Social Contract:

a) Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes defended extreme individualism, where each individual is completely independent. In the state of nature, humans are driven by two principles: self-preservation and satisfying their appetites. Without organization and with unlimited freedom, individuals pursue their interests. While resources are plentiful, there is no conflict. However, when resources become scarce and... Continue reading "Social Contract Theory: Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau" »

Active listening: Letting others talk, using expressions of reinforcement or compliments, avoiding being the center of attention, and being aware of nonverbal language.

Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of another.

Critical Thinking: Examining beliefs, opinions, decisions, or behaviors. Addressing problems individually with concrete critiques and proposed solutions.

Self-Control: Consciously regulating impulses, avoiding the accumulation of negative emotions, and refraining from reproaching past events.

Final Thoughts on Human Relationships

Human relationships are structured around rules.

Understanding Love

Love is a spontaneous feeling of affection or esteem for another person. It is complex, easy to communicate, difficult... Continue reading "Understanding Love, Relationships, and Self-Esteem" »