Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Types of Logical Fallacies

Logical fallacies can be divided into two main types: formal fallacies and non-formal fallacies.

Formal Fallacies

Formal fallacies are defects based on the logical form of reasoning rather than the content of the argument.

Non-Formal Fallacies

Non-formal fallacies are categorized by the nature of their error. We can identify three primary kinds:

• Fallacies of ambiguity: These occur when arguments are based on ambiguities of language.
• Material fallacies: These occur when one takes advantage of knowledge on a subject to manipulate others.
• Fallacies of relevance: These occur when one provides arguments to convince through emotion or distraction rather than using logical methods.

Fallacies of Relevance and Membership

• Argumentum

The Historical and Political Context of Plato

From Plato's birth until his death, Athens experienced a turbulent political life. Social evolution, starting from the early 7th century BC until the end of the Wars, constantly shaped the city, ultimately paving the legal path for social reform and democracy.

The city was the center of an independent state. Democracy became firmly established thanks to the work of the great statesman, Pericles. Athenian democracy rested on two fundamental pillars:

• Isonomia: Equality before the law.
• Isegoria: Equal right to speak in the assembly.

However, the Greek city-state was largely based on slave labor, who lacked all rights. Only about 25% of the population represented free citizenship.

The Age of Enlightenment

The problem of reality and the problem of knowledge are intimately related; it is not possible to separate them. Plato argues that true knowledge must possess characteristics of objectivity and universality.

In his attempt to find the concepts or definitions of virtue as a basis for moral practice, Plato realized that the objects of sense perception are constantly changing (in a state of flux), and therefore these objects cannot be given a definition valid for all time. For this reason, science cannot be reduced to sensation, because science is objective, infallible, and universal knowledge. Plato does not accept that absolutely everything is subject to becoming, as the essence of things, i.e., the universal concept, escapes becoming.

Only the... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge" »

Moral Relativism

Moral relativism posits that ethical principles are not universal. What is considered right or good is determined within each particular group and applies only to that group. Moral choices are incomparable across different groups due to varying traditions. Concepts of fair, unfair, good, and bad are always group-dependent, making it impossible to establish universally valid principles.

Relativistic Skepticism

Relativistic skepticism asserts that the lack of a universal criterion for choosing between options makes it impossible to distinguish between right and wrong, just and unjust. Despite this, decisions must be made, and rational justifications may be sought.

Socratic Intellectualism

Socratic intellectualism, an ethical theory,... Continue reading "Moral Relativism, Skepticism, and Socratic Ethics" »

Key Roles and Functions in Construction Projects

Director of Works (Project Director)

The agent responsible for directing the development of the work in technical, aesthetic, urban, and environmental aspects, in accordance with the defined project, the construction license, or other prerequisite authorizations and conditions.

Requirements and Functions

• Possess the necessary educational and professional qualifications.
• Verify the adequacy of the foundation and structure.
• Resolve contingencies occurring during the work.
• Develop modifications to the project at the request of the developer.

Director of Work Execution (Site Director)

The agent whose technical function is to direct the implementation of the work and control the construction process and the... Continue reading "Key Agents and Responsibilities in Building Projects" »

Rationalism vs. Empiricism: Sources of Knowledge

Rationalism: The Primacy of Reason

Rationalism is a philosophical current that emerged in France in the seventeenth century, primarily championed by René Descartes. It stands in direct opposition to empiricism, emphasizing the crucial role of reason in the acquisition of knowledge, contrasting with empiricism, which highlights the role of sensory experience in perception.

Rationalism has appeared in various forms since the early stages of Western philosophy, but it is primarily identified with the tradition stemming from the French philosopher and scientist Descartes in the 17th century. Descartes believed that geometry represented the ideal for all science and philosophy. He maintained that only... Continue reading "Rationalism vs. Empiricism: Reason, Experience, and Knowledge" »

Aristotle's Metaphysics: Substance and Reality

Metaphysics: The study of reality and what exists. Aristotle referred to this as substance, proposing the theory of hylemorphism: the union of matter (the physical component) and form (specific qualities). All around us are substances, which constitute the unique and authentic reality. This reality, for Aristotle, is a substantial synthesis, bridging the gap between Plato's two-world theory.

Aristotle begins by acknowledging Plato's concept of universals, which arise from the perfections of things. However, according to Aristotle, these universals do not reside in a separate, higher world, but rather within the things themselves. In reality, only individual, concrete substances exist. Yet, each... Continue reading "Aristotle's Core Philosophy & Hellenistic Ethics" »

Hypothetical-Deductive Method

The complete method of natural science is divided into three levels:

• Protocol Statements: These express world phenomena that can be established empirically.
• Laws: These are universal statements that express the behavior or relationship of certain phenomena in a regular and unvarying manner.
• Theories: These are universal statements that can be drawn from all the laws of a particular science.

One or more explanatory hypotheses are developed based on observed facts or detected problems.

Key Processes:

• Verification: A hypothesis is considered true when the observed facts agree with the facts deduced from the hypothesis.
• Falsification: A hypothesis is refuted or "false" when the facts in the world do not agree with the facts

Descartes' Methodic Doubt and the Cogito

This text introduces the doubts René Descartes systematically applied to everything surrounding him. He questioned everything derived from our senses, the pronouncements of the wise, and even mathematical certainties. Descartes initially suspected that everything he had ever believed might be deceptive. He pondered: if God is infinitely good and powerful, why would He allow us to be deceived? Or perhaps, he speculated, we are deceived by some malicious entity or for some unknown reason.

However, Descartes explained that one thing cannot be doubted: the act of thinking itself. He famously concluded, "Cogito ergo sum" – if he thinks, then he must exist. From this certainty arises the correspondence between... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt, Mind, God, and Reality" »

From Myth to Logos: A Shift in Thinking

The transition from myth to logos signifies a fundamental shift in mindset: the capacity to conceive of myths yielded to the rational approach of Philosophy. This transformation in thinking unfolded in Greece during the Archaic period of its history (8th-6th centuries BCE). Throughout this era, certain individuals began to challenge both the mythical interpretations of reality and traditional mythical religion.

Mythical explanations of reality, presented as truths, gradually failed to satisfy human curiosity. Consequently, by the 6th century BCE, early philosophers emerged, who demanded objective testing and demonstration, essentially seeking rational explanations rather than narratives. The traditional... Continue reading "From Myth to Logos: The Rise of Rational Thought" »