Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Abortion

Abortion is the interruption of a pregnancy before the fetus can develop independent living. There are two types of abortion: natural and induced.

Methods of Abortion

Methods include:

1. Suction or Aspiration: First trimester.
2. Dilation and Evacuation: Second trimester.
3. Hysterotomy.
4. Pill RU486.

According to the criminal code of 1995, abortion is illegal, except in some exceptional cases:

• Endangerment of the Mother's Health: If the mother's physical or psychological health is endangered, as ruled by two doctors.
• Pregnancy Resulting from Violation: If the pregnancy is a result of a violation, a doctor's note is not needed, but a complaint is required, and the procedure cannot be performed beyond 12 weeks.
• Fetal Malformation: If there is a presumption

Spanish Grammar: Key Components

Nouns

A noun is a word that refers to animals, people, concepts, and things. Nouns are classified:

• According to their form:
  • Gender: Masculine and feminine
  • Number: Singular and plural
• According to their meaning:
  • Common or proper
  • Concrete or abstract
  • Individual or collective
  • Countable or uncountable
  • Animate or inanimate
• By function: Nucleus of the nominal group

Determinants

Determinants accompany the noun. They are classified as:

• Articles
• Demonstratives
• Possessives
• Indefinites
• Numerals
• Interrogatives

Pronouns

A pronoun refers to the noun and assumes all of its syntactic functions in a sentence. Types of pronouns include:

• Personal
• Demonstrative
• Possessive
• Indefinite
• Numeral
• Interrogative
• Relative

Adjectives

An adjective expresses the qualities... Continue reading "Understanding Spanish Grammar: Nouns, Verbs, and More" »

Nature vs. Culture

Nature

Nature is innate, that which is born because it is genetically preprogrammed or develops in the embryo and fetus.

Culture

Culture is acquired or social learning, from the time when we are born.

Evolution and Species

Evolution

Evolution is the process by which individuals of a species undergo qualitative changes that lead to slowly changing the species from more primitive life forms into more organized ones.

Species

Species refers to each of the groups in which gender divides living beings.

Theories of Evolution

Fixism

Fixism was a theory established in the scientific community and the dominant concept until the nineteenth century.

Transformational Theory

Transformational theory is the first explicit theory of species evolution given... Continue reading "Nature vs. Culture in Human Evolution: Key Concepts" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Abstract Philosophy

Friedrich Nietzsche criticizes philosophers who deny the reality of change and the dynamism of real life, replacing them with "mummified concepts" – a substance always equal for all eternity. He vehemently rejected the lack of historical sense, arguing that denying change renders history meaningless. Nietzsche also criticized what he termed "Egypticism," which he saw as a taste for the eternal and immutable, akin to Egyptian mummies.

Nietzsche and Heraclitus: Embracing Flux

Nietzsche's perspective resonates with Heraclitus's philosophy, which recognizes that reality is multiple and in continuous change and transformation. For Heraclitus, this change is caused by the constant struggle of opposites (... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics and the Embrace of Reality" »

The Essence of Community: Aristotle's View

In the fourth century BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle defined man as a "political animal." Aristotle did not mean that man should necessarily participate in politics; he was referring to the fact that man, by nature, has to live with other men, and that means living in community. For Aristotle, the community best for the individual should be self-sufficient and autonomous.

Fostering Citizenship in the European Union

The European Union includes the objective of promoting school community learning, valuing democratic participation, and preparing people for citizenship.

Cultivating Responsible Global Citizens

This course is intended to help young people learn to live in a pluralistic and global society,... Continue reading "Building Strong Communities: Civic Values and Conflict Resolution" »

Marxist Theory of Alienation

According to Marx, humanity is alienated for several reasons:

• Economic: In capitalist society, individuals earn a salary for their labor, but it is often barely enough to meet their needs. The capitalist exploits the proletariat by accumulating wealth without directly working.
• Professional: Society does not reward individuals for good work; instead, labor serves to enrich the capitalist, even though work is fundamental to personal fulfillment.
• Legal: While the law proclaims equality, in reality, opportunities are not the same for everyone.
• Ideological: The ideology of a society reflects the beliefs of the ruling class. Religion, for instance, promises rewards in the afterlife if one follows a set of rules and does not

Atheism

A doctrine which, in theory or attitude, and in practice, denies the existence of God. It is important to distinguish atheism, which asserts a positive non-existence of God, from indifferentism, agnosticism, and skepticism.

Feign

To have the appearance (of a certain thing, a certain age, etc.). Historically, in religions, there have always been people or doctrines that feigned or appeared to be something else.

Science

A set of knowledge and activities designed to achieve it, characterized formally by intersubjectivity, and practically by the ability to make accurate predictions about a part of reality.

Tarraconense Council

A document that reflects on the needs of the poorest and marginalized, and calls upon Christians to renew their commitment... Continue reading "Essential Definitions: Social, Philosophical, and Religious Concepts" »

History of the Argentine Pension System

Historically, Argentina utilized a dual retirement system: public distribution (ANSES) and private capitalization (AFJP).

Early Milestones and Generalization Attempts

• 1800s: Early pension systems existed.
• 1877: Government established precepts for teachers' pensions.
• 1909: Specific regulations for teachers.
• 1920s (Avellaneda): The 1884 Ley 1420 included a failed attempt at generalization.

Generalization failed because employees resisted due to salary deductions, and employers resisted paying contributions.

Perón's Government and the Distribution System

The Perón government generalized the system. Contributions were paid to the state, which managed the funds and paid pensions. This system was based on solidarity.... Continue reading "Argentina's Pension System Evolution: From AFJP to SIPA and ANSES Functions" »

Nihilism and the Crisis of Meaning

With nihilism comes the death of God, a profound crisis of meaning and belief. Existence becomes unsustainable, empty, and devoid of purpose. Consider that every value is possible only if God exists, and if God does not exist, it ultimately leads to despair.

Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics

Nietzsche accused metaphysics of hating the notion of becoming. He asserted that the only attributes of reality are plurality and mobility. The apparent world of the senses is the only thing that exists, and anything else is unprovable.

Metaphysical Errors Identified by Nietzsche

• Metaphysicians confuse the last with the first. General concepts are the last thing humanity captures through abstraction, beginning with the senses.

Thomas Aquinas and the Existence of God

Thomas Aquinas sought to integrate Christian faith with common sense and empirical observation (confidence in the senses). This approach influenced his quest for a rational demonstration of the existence of God. For Thomas, God's existence lies outside the scope of the obvious and, therefore, necessitates a rational demonstration. He believed that all human knowledge begins with the senses, so the existence of God can only be inferred from sensible objects. God, he argued, must have left significant clues in the world He created that lead us to prove His existence.

Thomas Aquinas' Five Ways

Thomas produced five ways to prove the existence of God. In these five ways, he argues similarly, following the same... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas: 5 Ways to Prove God's Existence" »