Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

The Moral Realm: Understanding Moral Acts

Characteristics and Structures of the Moral Act

Moral acts are acts of humans, but not all acts performed by humans are moral. Examples include sleeping, drinking, and running.

A human act is considered moral if it is performed freely and consciously (voluntarily), if it affects another person (socially), and if it is regulated by moral norms (normative).

If these requirements are not met, the act is considered amoral. For instance, animals and nature have no morality (e.g., earthquakes, dog bites).

Phases of a Moral Act

• Intention or motive that impels one to act
• End or goal to be achieved
• Means used to achieve the intended purpose, which must be appropriate to the nature of the act
• Results
• Implications of this

Plato's Philosophy: A Journey into the World of Ideas

The Context: Athens in the Time of Pericles

During the period of 492-479 BC, Athens emerged as a powerful force after the Greco-Persian Wars. This newfound power led to a surge in Athenian nationalism and political engagement. The Sophists emerged as paid teachers, offering instruction in rhetoric and political strategy. They emphasized the art of persuasion and achieving political victory, often embracing relativism and skepticism regarding truth and justice. Socrates, in contrast, believed in absolute values and challenged the Sophists' relativistic views, considering them a corrupting influence on philosophy.

Socrates vs. the Sophists: A Clash of Ideologies

The clash between Socrates and... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ideas, Justice, and the Ideal City" »

Hypothetical-Deductive Method

The hypothetical-deductive method is a three-tier structure:

• Protocol Statements: These express world phenomena capable of being objective and communicable empirically. Statements are established unambiguously.
• Laws: Universal statements that express the behavior or the relationship of a certain phenomenon regularly and invariably.
• Theories: Universal statements from which all the laws of a particular science can be derived.

Steps of the Hypothetical-Deductive Method

1. Starting Point: A problem is detected by observation or experimentation that is not yet resolved.
2. One or several hypotheses are produced to explain the observed fact or detected problem.
3. The hypothesis is formulated mathematically, and testable implications

Zarathustra's Message

1. Will to Power

Nietzsche tried to compensate for his poor health with a strong will to live. For Nietzsche, the world, man, and life are will to power. His will to power is the willingness to be more, live longer, and, if surpassed, will ultimately create. He became increasingly interested in moral values, so his will to power is a will to create new values, ranging totally against the traditional vitalist values. Nietzsche is a philosopher; the only thing for him is his life, a finite life.

2. Eternal Return

This is the main theme of Zarathustra. The real world is our world; if the world had a purpose or an end state, we would have achieved it. Those who defend the existence of an earthly world and give us hope are nothing... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Will to Power, Eternal Return" »

Knowledge: Subject, Image, Object

Knowledge is the identification of the subject by the object. It is true if the content matches the object mentioned. It has three main elements: subject, image, and object.

Possibility of Knowledge

Dogmatism

Knowledge is not a problem; objects are taken directly.

Skepticism

Knowledge is not possible; the subject cannot grasp the object.

Descartes' method of systematic doubt is a methodical skepticism. Mitigated skepticism refuses certainty and accepts likelihood.

Subjectivism and Relativism

• Subjectivism: Something can be true for one person but not for others.
• Relativism: Knowledge is relative to cultural context (Protagoras, Spengler).

Pragmatism

Human knowledge only makes sense in practical terms. Truth is the congruence... Continue reading "Understanding Knowledge: Elements, Sources, and Essence" »

Topic 10: Social Policy of Educational Institutions

Defining Human Rights

There are three main perspectives on defining human rights:

• Positivism: Rights based on legal texts and goodwill, often aspirational but not always legally binding. These positive rights may not be fully captured or enforced within specific legal systems.
• Natural Law: Inherent rights preceding positive law, reflecting universal human needs and aspirations. This perspective views human rights as a higher moral order, objective and universal, influencing legal frameworks.
  • Relative Natural Law: A dynamic approach recognizing the evolving nature of human rights and the need for continuous critical assessment and incorporation into legal systems.

Historical Context

• 17th Century:

Introduction

This text discusses a society where everything is geared towards living within a state. We don't have a welfare state, but rather the imperative to be free, and for citizens to be free.

Part 1

1. Leaving the Minority

This is what we have to achieve: to think for ourselves and attain moral autonomy.

2. Causes of the Minority

One cause is oneself; the fault is one's own – self-blame. Another cause is laziness and cowardice.

3. Danger of the Minority

The danger lies with the guardians (State, Church) because people are afraid to leave their tutelage. The less you know, the easier it is to control people (by instilling fear).

4. Obligation and Liberty

These must be reconciled at their midpoint so that everything goes well. This is why Kant... Continue reading "Kant's Philosophy: Freedom, Enlightenment, and the State" »

Continental Rationalism

Continental Rationalism refers to a philosophical movement developed in continental Europe. It is opposed to the Empiricist school, which developed in the British Isles with thinkers like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.

Main Rationalist thinkers include Blaise Pascal, Baruch Spinoza, and Nicolas Malebranche.

Difficulties of Rationalism

Rationalism is a system that emphasizes reason. However, a general definition leads to the consideration of various types of rationalist philosophers, including those who deny the supernatural and do not accept revelation or mysteries.

Key Elements of Rationalism

• The importance of reason as the source of knowledge, as opposed to the senses. Senses provide information that must be interpreted by

Nietzsche's Critique of Western Civilization

Nietzsche's philosophy includes a significant critique of Western culture, denying many of the traditional cultural and philosophical foundations of Western civilizations. The characteristics of this criticism are:

• Method: Psychological analysis of genealogical form to research the development and conditions in which moral values arise.
• Diagnosis: Western culture is steeped in nihilism, leading to its own self-destruction.
• Common Enemy: Christianity.

Nihilism: A Diagnosis

Nihilism, as used by Nietzsche, criticizes any doctrine that denies the values he considers important. It has two meanings in his work:

1. Passive Nihilism: Decadence and decline of the spirit's power.
2. Active Nihilism: The growing power of

Logic and Argumentation

Aristotle and the Science of Logic

The creator of logic as a science was Aristotle.

Sophistry and Fallacies

Sophistry: False arguments

Fallacies: Look real but are falsehoods.

Steps for a Valid Argument

1. An argument needs two declarative sentences to be valid.
2. It must have two premises with a middle ground.
3. The average of the two premises must have the same meaning and extent in both.

Types of Arguments and Propositions

Aristotle identified different types of arguments and propositions:

• A: Universal, Affirmative: All human beings are rational.
• E: Universal, Negative: No talking dog.
• I: Particular, Affirmative: John is an architect.
• O: Particular, Negative: Juan does not laugh.

Conclusion Validity

The conclusion is not valid if at least... Continue reading "Logic, Arguments, and Freedom: An Exploration" »