Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Fundamental Political Concepts

Source of Political Power:

Investigating how, when, and why the first human communities developed a clear division between rulers and ruled.

Legitimacy:

The question of whether a phenomenon is positive or negative, and if it is worthwhile to maintain and improve, regardless of its historical origin. Not all political power is legitimate, just as not every form of football play is correct. In both cases, criteria are needed to distinguish legitimate from illegitimate forms.

Institution:

An established organization or system, often with the ability to enact laws, regulate for the public, and levy mandatory taxes or fees.

State:

The result of the transition from the state of nature into a society organized by a social contract.

Plato's Dual Reality: Forms and Appearances

Plato's philosophy posits a fundamental distinction between two realms of existence: the Intelligible World and the Visible World. This dualistic view is central to his understanding of reality, knowledge, and the human condition.

The Intelligible World: Realm of Forms

The Intelligible World, also known as the World of Forms or Ideas, is a realm accessible only through the mind, not through sensory perception. It is the domain of perfect, eternal, and unchanging entities that serve as the true reality behind the fleeting appearances of the visible world.

Characteristics of Intelligible Objects

• Apprehended solely through intellect and reason.
• Exist independently of human thought or perception.
• Are eternal,

Nietzsche's Critique of Science and Objective Truth

Nietzsche argues that, like philosophers, scientists often overestimate their intellectual capacity. He posits that truth and lies are social conventions.

He accuses scientists of equating objectivity with the use of reason and knowledge while deliberately excluding sensitivity and emotion. For Nietzsche, words and concepts, when used as abstractions, become inadequate to express life itself.

The pretense of achieving a singular, objective truth is an impossible creation; truth is fundamentally individual. Human scientific knowledge offers schemes, but not reality itself. Mathematics and logic are activities of relationship that have nothing to do with reality.

Nietzsche's Assertions on Truth

Understanding Morality

Moral People: Moral problems arise, and they want to justify their behavior with reasoned decisions and actions.

Immoral People: They recognize the norms and values of society but infringe upon them by putting themselves in front, just abiding by the rules if it follows a profit.

Demoralized People: These are those who have learned moral failures due to a lack of courage.

Amoral People: They are indifferent to any moral question; if they get economic performance, anything goes.

Three Important Considerations of Happiness

• We cannot find happiness by chance; happiness is the result of a search.
• The finding of happiness depends on ourselves and the circumstances.
• Each of us can understand happiness in different ways.

To Be Happy

• We

Theories of Truth: Utility and Consensus

Truth as Utility (Pragmatic Theory)

This theory was bolstered in the modern era by the American philosopher **Charles Sanders Peirce**. According to the pragmatic theory, human theoretical thought is characterized by its ability to act. Hence, any theory must be aimed at an end. In this context, a thought or theory is true if it is effective in practice. For example, the statement 'God exists' is considered true or false according to whether people find this belief useful or effective in their lives.

Truth as Consensus

This theory is defended in the modern era by a group of philosophers associated with the so-called **Frankfurt School of Critical Theory**. The most important authors include **Jürgen Habermas*... Continue reading "Defining Truth: Pragmatism, Consensus, and Epistemological Attitudes" »

The origins of ethical relativism can be traced back to the Homeric poems, specifically the Iliad and the Odyssey. These poems suggest a lack of universal moral values. Socrates challenged this view, asserting the existence of inherent moral values, a concept he explored through the Socratic method.

Moral Relativism

Moral relativism posits that principles of right and wrong are subjective and can only be found within each individual or group. Right and good are always relative to a specific group. This idea originated in Greece with the Sophists, notably Protagoras.

Related Positions to Relativism

• Cultural Relativism
• Contextual Relativism
• Ethnocentrism

Skepticism

Skepticism, as articulated by Pyrrho, suggests that we cannot find any reliable criterion... Continue reading "Ethical Relativism, Skepticism, and Moral Autonomy" »

Social Security Registrations and Deregistrations

Registrations (High) correspond to the beginning of a new job or a change of company for which an employee will provide services. They serve to establish the social security relationship for a protected individual.

Deregistrations (Low) correspond to the termination of professional activity that an employee had been developing, or the termination of the employment contract linking them with a particular company. They also apply to changes to a workplace located in different provinces, and even within the same province, if adherence to a different contribution account is required.

The Obligation to Contribute to Social Security

The main financial resources of the Social Security system come from... Continue reading "Social Security Contributions: Registration, Obligations, and Responsibilities in Spain" »

Ethics and Values in Social Work

Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with morality and human duties. It explores the concept of "a must" that aligns with human nature and addresses the demand for universal values.

Moral Values

Moral values are norms and behaviors that guide human obligations in their interactions with each other and society.

Values

Values represent the ideal ways of being or acting for individuals or communities. They serve as goals and relate to culture, contributing to the common good. Values carry an emotional weight, enabling individuals to prioritize them over personal desires.

Beliefs

Beliefs signify a strong conviction and adherence to something, fully accepting an event or news as true. Unlike values, beliefs... Continue reading "Ethics, Values, and Social Work: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Conception of Science

Philosophers of science propose various concepts and theories, often distinguishing between observational (or empirical) and theoretical concepts. Theoretical concepts cannot be observed directly or through a tool and are explained by definition. Three main positions are distinguished:

• The empiricist view: theoretical concepts are definable in terms of observational ones.
• The contemporary view: denies pure observational science, asserting that all observation is theory-laden.
• Rudolf Carnap's concept: the differentiation between theoretical and observational is not radical but gradual.

Structural Conception of Scientific Theories

The structural conception of scientific theories emerged to address the shortcomings of classical... Continue reading "Philosophy of Science: Concepts, Theories, and Methods" »

Mutation

If mutations are harmful, less fit individuals are eliminated by natural selection.

Synthetic Theory of Evolution

This modern theory of evolution, also called Neo-Darwinism, is currently the most accepted theory to explain the evolutionary processes of any population. Modern scientists argue that all biological organization, starting from the molecular level, has gone through an evolutionary process. Natural selection acting on genetic variation remains the way evolutionary changes manifest.

Development of the Theory of Evolution

In the late nineteenth century, the so-called primitive Neo-Darwinism, which is based on the principle of natural selection as the basis of evolution, found in the German biologist A. Weismann one of its main exponents.... Continue reading "Understanding Evolution: From Darwin to Neo-Darwinism" »