Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Unit 0: Relationships and Dating

Phrasal Verbs

• Let down: decepcionar
• Chat up: intentar ligar
• Ask out: invitar a salir
• Get over: olvidar
• Go out: salir
• Split up: romper

Other Vocabulary

• Verb: Date (salir con)
• Nouns: Date (cita), Match (pareja), Guy (tío)
• Adjectives: Cute (rico), Kind (amable), Reliable (de fiar), Sporty (deportista)

Time Expressions and Sequencing

First, then, next, afterwards, the next day, when, while, finally.

Unit 1: Daily Life and Housing

Key Vocabulary

• Verbs: Anxious (eager), Prove (demonstrate), Succeeded (achieved something), Boil (heat water to 100°C), Respect (have a good opinion of), Surround (rodear)
• Nouns: Celebrity (a well-known person), Commuter (someone who travels to a city every day to work), Desert (desierto), Flat (piso)

The state is a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life, by which we mean a happy and honorable life.

Features of the State

1. State as a Union

The state is a union of different individuals, groups, families, etc., providing legal bonds.

2. State Has a Purpose

The state was not created without reason; it exists for the betterment of individual life. In the absence of the state, lawlessness and disorder would prevail, where the strong would dominate the weak.

3. State Comprises Four Elements

One: Population

There can be no state if there are no people to populate it. The state exists for its people.

Two: Territory

Any government must have a fixed geographical area over which it exercises control.

Three: Government

The...

Plato's Dialectics: A Path to the World of Ideas

Dialectics, the superior form of knowledge, refers to the World of Ideas, to the immutable, universal, and eternal. It is identified with philosophy itself. Plato conceived dialectics in two ways: firstly, as a rational method that uses no sensible signs, employing only reason. It rests on "assumptions" but attempts to dispense with any recourse to the senses. Philosophy, which is synonymous with dialectics, is a more reflective knowledge, one that leaves no question without examination or assessment. The goal of dialectics is to discover the relationships between ideas and to seek the ultimate foundation of all: the Idea of the Good. True philosophy is "an ascent to being": the philosopher must...

Texts

According to Hobbes

Theme

The need for the state to establish order among humans.

Auxiliary Idea

End state.

Terms

• State: Characterized by the instrument that holds political power, it can be defined as an association of a complex type. Within a given territory, it successfully monopolizes legitimate violence as an instrument of domination.
• War: The result of the natural passions of men when there is no visible power to keep them in fear, and the threat of punishment to force them to comply with covenants and observe the laws of nature.

Do I need the state? Why? The state guarantees peace, order, and security.

According to Marx

Topic

Comparison of a capitalist state with a state of slavery.

Auxiliary Idea

The basis for the rule of seniority was slavery;...

Argument

An argument is offered from the subjective viewpoint of an issuer on a topic. Its purpose is to influence and convince the receiver of the validity of its reasoning, thus dominating the conative or appellative function.

To persuade the receiver, the sender selects arguments, reasons, and evidence supporting their opinion. Objections to opposing arguments, called counterarguments, can also be used.

Elements and Structure of Argumentative Text

Argumentative texts have a logical and orderly structure. They are organized around a main idea developed in the body of the argument and end with a conclusion.

• Thesis

  It is the main idea around which the text is organized. The location of the thesis determines the structure of the argumentative text.

Kant's Distinctions: Phenomenon and Noumenon

Kant presented in detail the distinction between phenomenon and noumenon, and on the other hand, the distinction between knowing and thinking.

1. Only phenomena we know, what appears to us in sensible intuition:
   1. Our knowledge of phenomena is the result of a double synthesis: the first level of sensitivity between the data of experience (sensory impressions) and the a priori forms of sensibility: Space and Time; the second between the spatially and temporally organized data and understanding, the concepts or categories.
2. Our theoretical knowledge is limited to objects of experience, to what is shown to us, so that any application of the categories to that of which I have no experience does not produce knowledge.

Corporate Financial Distress: Key Concepts

Understanding Insolvency Proceedings (Bankruptcy)

The term bankruptcy refers to the legal process initiated when a person or entity enters a state of insolvency, meaning they cannot cope with all payments due. This single administrative procedure covers situations of both temporary default (suspension of payments) and final liquidation.

Suspension of Payments (Default)

Definition of Suspension of Payments

Suspension of payments occurs when the company, despite having sufficient assets to cover all its debts, is unable to pay them upon maturity due to a temporary lack of liquidity.

Financial Indicators (Illustrative):

• Current Liabilities > Real Assets
• Current Assets > Total Liabilities

Process for Suspension

Philosophers Who Have Spoken of Methods

Francis Bacon

According to Francis Bacon, the purpose of knowledge is dominion over nature and transformation for the benefit of man. Through science, human beings must be able to establish on Earth "his kingdom or domain." This domain first requires a deep understanding of nature and its mechanisms. In his work, the English philosopher sought to overcome the inductive method of Aristotle (syllogism) by replacing it with a new inductive method. The inductive procedure is only effective if one first identifies and rejects prejudice.

Galileo Galilei

The experimental method of Galileo was presented and made public in the book Il Saggiatore, the most philosophical of his works. This method is divided into the...

Commercial Contract Types Explained

Sales Contract

In a sales contract, one party agrees to deliver a specific item, and the other agrees to pay a certain price in money or a sign representing elements of the object.

Buying Considerations

The object of the sale must be lawful for trade, and this is determined legally. The price is the primary obligation of the buyer.

Obligations of Buyer and Seller

• Seller: Must deliver the item. This includes ensuring the buyer has legal and peaceful possession of the item sold and responding to hidden defects or flaws the item may have had (sanitation).
• Buyer: Must pay the agreed price.

Exchange Contract

An exchange contract is a contract transferring ownership in which each party agrees to transmit to the other an...

Early Human Development: From Symbiosis to Self

The Symbiotic Phase and Individuation

Initially, the baby's body blends with the environment. At this symbiotic point, the mother does not perceive the baby as a being distinct from herself; she calms and protects it. The process of individuation involves differentiating one's image from others and other things in the world. In many respects, similar to Piaget's theories, it is through the body that the relationship between internal and external is formed.

The Mirror Phase and Symbolic Capacity

As the baby matures, it recognizes exteroceptive images through a process called the mirror phase, which involves the perception of images. Initially, the child does not grasp the relationship between image...