Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Social Justice: Definition and Explanation

Definition: Social justice is the moral and social principle that seeks to ensure fair access for all people and groups to the goods, opportunities, and rights necessary for human dignity.

Explanation: It goes beyond material equality; it aims at equity, solidarity, and respect for human dignity.

It ensures that everyone can participate in the economic, political, and social life of the community.

In Catholic Social Teaching, it is rooted in love of neighbor and the dignity of the human person, not in ideology.

The Principle of Subsidiarity

Definition: A principle that states a higher authority should not interfere in what a lower level can accomplish by itself, but should support (subsidium) when necessary....

Fundamentals of International Law

Definition of International Law

International Law refers to a body of rules, principles, and norms that govern the relations between states and other international entities. It is a system of legal norms designed to regulate interactions in the international community, ensuring peace, cooperation, and justice. According to Oppenheim, International Law is “the body of rules which are legally binding on states in their intercourse with each other.”

It encompasses treaties, customary practices, general principles of law, judicial decisions, and scholarly writings. International Law operates in a decentralized system, relying on the consent of states, and is distinct from domestic law due to its focus on sovereign...

LEASE DEED

I. Parties to the Agreement

THIS LEASE DEED is made and executed at Delhi on [Date of Execution].

The Lessor (First Part)

Smt. Sudarshan Kaur W/o Sh. Paramjit Singh R/o H. No. M-170, Greater Kailash-II, New Delhi, hereinafter referred to as the LESSOR, which expression shall, unless excluded or repugnant to the context, be deemed to include legal heirs (i.e., Mr. Paramjit Singh, Husband of the Lessor herein), successors, executors, administrators, representatives, and assigns of the FIRST PART.

The Lessee (Second Part)

M/s. Dave Thomson Associates (India) Pvt. Ltd., having its registered office at Satyug-Villa 1st Floor, 5, Gurunanak Nagar off Shankarshet Road, Pune, acting through their Director, Mr. H. R. Srinivas (duly authorized to...

OECD Corporate Governance Principles

Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports.

• Rights and Equitable Treatment of Shareholders

  Organizations should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to exercise those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by openly and effectively communicating information and by encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.

• Interests of Other Stakeholders

  Organizations should recognize that they have legal, contractual, social, and market-driven obligations to non-shareholder stakeholders, including employees, investors, creditors, suppliers, local communities,

How Ethics are Defined

Ethics are a branch of philosophy that reflects on what is right and wrong.

Ethics vs. Morality

Ethics involve analysis, while morality is putting ethical ideas into practice.

Ethical Values

Guiding ideals like justice, freedom, honesty, love, and respect.

Ethical Principles

General rules guiding proper behavior.

Two Ethical Principles

Confucius: 'Don't do to others what you don't like done to you.' Christian: 'Love others as yourself.'

Ethical Virtues

Habits aiding correct behavior and moral actions.

Ethical Vices

Bad habits leading to harmful actions.

Ethical Codes

Set of values, principles, rules, duties, and responsibilities guiding behavior.

Requirements for Ethical Reflection

• Reason
• Freedom
• Knowledge
• Responsibility
• Universality
• Education

Applied

Learning from Mistakes: Popper and Kuhn

Science progresses not by proving theories right, but by recognizing when our understanding of reality is false. Scientists actively try to disprove their theories.

• Induction: If you observe that it rains every Thursday for four weeks, you might conclude that it always rains on Thursdays.
• Science aims to avoid the problem of induction.
• Scientists propose a hypothesis and then test it, seeking evidence that could falsify it. If falsified, the hypothesis is rejected.
• Kuhn: Argued that there are no objective facts waiting to be discovered. Progress occurs through "paradigm shifts," where existing frameworks of thought are overturned.

The Runaway Train and the Unwanted Fiddler

These thought experiments by Philippa...

Taylor on Subjective Meaning in Life

Taylor uses a paradigmatic example... it lies outside him.

Our life is like... We wonder what the point of it all is. If “the point of any living thing’s life is, evidently, nothing but life itself,” then why do we do anything at all? So then Taylor introduces the concept of impulses...

This is the “subjective meaning”: what makes our life meaningful depends upon one having the desire to do the activities that make up one's life. Taylor states that although we cannot have an objective meaning of life, we can still have subjective meaning...

Wiggins' Critique of Taylor's View

Wiggins thinks that Taylor’s position is incoherent. On Wiggins' view, a purpose has no permanence, and even if it did, its...

Mastering OPCVL for Historical Document Analysis

Origin, Purpose, Content, Value, Limitation

OPCVL (Origin, Purpose, Content, Value, Limitation) is a technique for analyzing historical documents. It is used extensively in the International Baccalaureate curriculum and testing materials, and is incredibly helpful in teaching students to be critical observers and analytical thinkers.

Origin

Is this a primary or secondary source? What leads you to characterize it as one or the other?

• Who is the author?
• When and where was it created or published? Who published it?
• Is there anything we know about the author that is pertinent to our evaluation?

Purpose

• Why does this document exist?
• Why did the author create this piece of work? Consider intent, audience, and

René Descartes is introduced into modern philosophy being the father of rationalism.

René is born in 1596 and dies in 1650

Descartes was a dualist. He affirmed that there are two substances: that of the body that possesses the attribute of extension, and that of the soul that possesses the attribute of thought.

There was a new worldview, this change implied a break with the old religious beliefs and the knowledge of other philosophers of the new planetary system was added, coming to the theory that the center of it was the sun. Because of this, Rene wanted to build new knowledge, that is, a new world for him.

Descartes attributes to the matter a creative force of its own, and considers the mechanical movement as the vital manifestation of matter...