Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' Theory of Substances

The theory of the terms of commonality is the weakest part of Cartesian theory. The Cartesian doctrine of reality is based on the cogito, from which the self is sensed as a substance whose whole essence is to think. Descartes defines substances *a priori* under existing concrete entities, but one that does not need anything else besides itself. He distinguishes three types:

• Res Cogitans: The human being is conceived as a thinking substance; its body does not need thought to exist.
• Res Infinita: The thinking being is imperfect, so it needs a perfect being (God).
• Res Extensa: The thinking being has a body, just like everything else.

Descartes' concept of the thinking substance assumes that the only thing beyond doubt... Continue reading "Descartes' Substance Theory: Mind, Body, and God" »

David Hume

His Impact on Philosophy and the Critique of Causality

David Hume (1711-1776) is one of the most influential philosophers, and exerted a profound impact on Immanuel Kant. Among the most important aspects of his philosophy is his criticism of the principle of causality.

Limitations of Knowledge and Future Events

According to Hume, our knowledge of facts is limited to current and past impressions. We cannot have knowledge of future events because we cannot have impressions of an event that has not yet happened. However, in our daily lives, we constantly assume that certain events will occur in the future. For example, we place a container of water on the fire, expecting it to heat up. But if we initially only feel cold water over the flame,... Continue reading "David Hume's Critique of Causality: Impact on Philosophy" »

20th Century European Philosophy

Vitalism and Historicism

In the 20th century, two prominent schools of thought emerged in Europe: vitalism and historicism. Vitalism posited that the essence of reality transcends reason, while historicism emphasized the crucial role of history in human understanding. These trends significantly influenced the philosophy of José Ortega y Gasset, particularly his concepts of vital reason and historical reason. Thinkers during this period grappled with the complex relationship between knowledge and reality, with language often serving as a starting point for exploring existence.

The Influence of Krausism

The intellectual renewal movement spearheaded by Giner de los Ríos and the Free Institution of Education, known... Continue reading "20th Century European Philosophy: Vitalism, Historicism, and Ortega y Gasset" »

Accidental Values of Gender

Some nouns have alternating genders that refer not only to sex but also to other non-sexual characteristics. Pottier refers to this as dimensional gender, where the alternating male/female forms refer to size. For example:

• El jarro (the jug) / La jarra (the jar)
• El cesto (the basket) / La cesta (the basket)

In these cases, the feminine form often implies a larger size. Similarly, when referring to trees and their fruit, the masculine form often denotes the tree, while the feminine form denotes the fruit:

• El naranjo (the orange tree) / La naranja (the orange)

When referring to people, the feminine form often denotes the female counterpart. For example:

• El alcalde (the mayor) / La alcaldesa (the mayor's wife)

Gender of Proper

Immanuel Kant's First Definitive Article for Perpetual Peace

We present here a fragment of the "First Definitive Article for Perpetual Peace" authored by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). In this excerpt, the author presents the constitution that a state must have to achieve perpetual peace, along with its characteristics. This is the republican constitution, a constitution based on the principles of liberty, a single law imposed upon the subjects, and equal acceptance under the law by the state's citizens at a collective level. For Kant, this was the best civil constitution so that rights could be established within a state, thus leaving the state of nature and finally arriving at eternal peace. The author did not speak of perpetual peace as a utopia,... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Perpetual Peace and Philosophy" »

Hobbes: The State of Nature

The state of nature, according to Hobbes, is the condition of humanity before the establishment of society. In this state, individuals exist in complete freedom and equality, unbound by laws or authority. Consequently, everyone possesses a right to everything, which effectively equates to possessing nothing, as there is no mechanism to enforce or protect individual rights. Driven by selfishness and a lack of restraint, individuals become a threat to one another ("homo homini lupus"), transforming the state of nature into a perpetual state of war and widespread insecurity. This condition impedes progress in all areas, including agriculture, industry, knowledge, and culture.

However, the instinct for self-preservation,... Continue reading "Hobbes vs. Locke: Contrasting Views on the State of Nature" »

The Fundamental Problems of Philosophy

Since the inception of philosophical writings, a recurring concern has been to determine the principles that make reality intelligible, and to question whether reality is ultimately reducible to something fundamental.

Metaphysical Perspectives on Reality

Spiritualism

Spiritualist metaphysics claims that the ultimate nature of reality is spiritual. This assertion is primarily motivated by the defense of the thesis that spiritual phenomena are irreducible to material explanations based on mechanical or organic laws governing natural events.

Sensationalism

A peculiar form of spiritualism is sensationalism, which reduces reality to so-called "sense data." It posits that perceptions are psychic reality and do not... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations: Core Problems and Metaphysics" »

Hobbes and Rousseau: A Comparison

Hobbes: Human Nature and the Philosophy of Power

According to Hobbes, human nature is composed of two elements that determine political problems:

1. Natural Equality of Men: All men are created equal.
2. Scarcity of Goods: Men crave goods due to their needs, leading to competition.

Language is crucial for civil society and the state. Without language, there would be no state, civil society, peace agreements, or distinction from animals. Language makes man a citizen, highlighting his rationality. Reason remains constant in its purposes and means.

Analysis of Power

Hobbes opposes the optimistic view of natural law theorists who believe in man's natural inclination to sociability. The first law of nature leads to conflict... Continue reading "Hobbes and Rousseau: Natural Law, Sovereignty, and the Social Contract" »

Monism and Dualism

Monism claims that there is no composition in human reality, so that death becomes the absolute limit of existence. Dualism argues that human beings are constituted by two kinds of reality: a material body and a spiritual body, the soul. These theories often view death as the separation of the components. In these cases, death is like a transit. There are a variety of conceptions about what happens to the soul after its separation from the body: from the possibility of achieving ultimate happiness to the belief in the need to purify the soul, incarnated successively in several bodies.

The Question of Evil

The term "theodicy" was introduced by Leibniz. From the etymological point of view, it refers both to the holiness of God... Continue reading "Monism, Dualism, Evil, and Science: Philosophical Perspectives" »

Cultural Evolution

From Biological to Cultural

Biological evolution continues in cultural evolution. "Culture" encompasses all human inventions transmitted through learning: language, beliefs, and more. Cultural evolution has advanced at a pace Darwinian processes cannot match. Unlike our biological history, cultural evolution is Lamarckian in nature.

The Process of Humanization

Humanization refers to all the changes in human life since the emergence of Homo sapiens, summarized as "culture." Humans are the only creatures capable of education. Education encompasses care during infancy, the discipline that shapes humanity, and finally, the transmission of culture. This creates a three-way relationship: child, pupil, and student.

Discipline distinguishes... Continue reading "Cultural Evolution and Humanization: A Journey Through Human Development" »