Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

René Descartes: Life and Philosophical Foundations

René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye, Touraine, France. He belonged to a family of minor nobility; his father, Joachim Descartes, served as a Counselor in the Parliament of Brittany. Due to the early death of his mother, Jeanne Brochard, a few months after his birth, Descartes was brought up by his maternal grandmother, with a nurse who remained linked to his life.

His famous work, Discourse on Method (1637), was followed by The Dioptrics, The Meteors, and Geometry, which served as tests of this new method. The success of these works led him to devote himself entirely to philosophy. Descartes, often in poor health and accustomed to staying in bed until midday for his writing,... Continue reading "René Descartes: Life, Metaphysics, and the Mind-Body Problem" »

Nietzsche's Philosophy: Vitalism and the Death of God

Understanding Nietzsche's Core Concepts

Nietzsche's thinking arose from the need to understand life as a vital impulse, and man in the biological and geophysical sense as being vital. It is, therefore, a thought that is part of vitalism and the philosophy of suspicion. It calls into question the values of his time. In particular, his thinking is considered an irrational vitalism because he believes that nature is not governed by rational principles. We also have to understand his philosophy from what it is: a philosophy of the thinking artist.

Nihilism: Negative and Positive Aspects

His thought consists of two phases, marked by the two sides of his nihilism: a negative side, criticism of the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Vitalism, Nihilism, and the Superman" »

Science

Science: Knowledge is systematic, rigorous, and objective. It consists of a set of descriptions, explanations, theories, and laws on the nature of things. It is based on observable data. It is a knowledge that is mathematicized, quantified, and subject to experimental verification. It is not evaluative knowledge.

Philosophy

Philosophy: Knowledge is systematic, rigorous, objective, and rational. It tries to understand things beyond the observable and measurable, but without falling into myth, belief, or unsupported speculation. It is specifically rational knowledge. It is justified rationally. It addresses human and social issues. Philosophy, unlike science, is valuable and not only explanatory.

Religion

Religion: It is a type of explanation... Continue reading "Understanding Human Behavior: Science, Philosophy, Ethics, and Morality" »

Descartes: Historical, Cultural, and Philosophical Context

René Descartes (1596-1650) was born in La Haye, France. In 1616, he obtained a degree in Law from Poitiers. However, Descartes was disappointed with his education, a sentiment he would later express in *Discourse on Method*. He found scholastic philosophy unsatisfying, although much of the terminology he later used was taken from it. Descartes found satisfaction only in mathematics. Consequently, he made the decision to "completely abandon the study of literature and, determined not to seek another science than that which I could find in myself or in the great book of the world, I spent the rest of my youth traveling, seeing courts and armies, treating people of different moods and... Continue reading "Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Historical Context" »

Analysis of a Journalistic Opinion Piece

Textual Characteristics

This journalistic opinion piece, extracted from a newspaper, explores the subject of ... . The author's primary aim is to present their perspective and persuade the reader of its validity. The text blends expository and argumentative writing styles, explaining events while advocating for a specific viewpoint.

Structure

The text follows a traditional three-part structure:

• Introduction: ...
• Development: ...
• Conclusion: ...

Main Ideas

The central arguments presented are:

• ...
• ...

Further details and explanations complement these core ideas.

Author's Thesis

The author's main contention is that ............................. This thesis is strategically positioned within the text to ... .

Language

Reason and Faith in Aquinas

B: Since Thomas was convinced that faith and reason are harmonized and complementary, he argued that some truths of faith are accessible to reason. For example, we can come to the knowledge of God using only the light of reason. This aligns with what Thomas termed "rational or natural theology." He first proposed a question, then provided opposing arguments. Next, Thomas presented his argument, serving as his defense. In the body of the article, he offers his solution, in this case, the five ways. Finally, he concludes by responding to the opposing arguments. Thomas solved the problem of the relationship between reason and faith, stating that there are two kinds of theology: natural and supernatural. Natural theology... Continue reading "Five Rational Proofs for God's Existence" »

Features of Civil Society

Civil society designates the mode of organization and structure of society at a particular time of development, existing between the family and the state, within which social groups are displayed.

Marx and Hegel:

Represents the space for expression and the satisfaction of the needs of individuals.

Material covers the exchange of individuals, encompassing all commercial and industrial life.

Its organization is based on production and exchange.

Forms the basis of the state.

This is engineered and regulated by legislation, providing for social rights and civic duties.

Social Contract: Rousseau

Rousseau criticizes previous theories:

Hobbes believes that their form of contract, the contract of submission, denies the natural freedom... Continue reading "Civil Society: Theories, Contracts, and Assumptions" »

Direct and Indirect Voluntary Acts

• Direct Voluntary Act: This refers to an action that is willed and determined by an individual for themselves. In this case, the degree of responsibility is at its maximum. We are entirely responsible for these actions.
• Indirect Voluntary Act: This is when the effect of an action is not directly intended but is a predictable consequence of a voluntary act. As rational and free individuals, we are responsible for our actions and their reasonably foreseeable consequences. Therefore, we are also fully responsible for indirect voluntary acts, although the degree of responsibility may differ. We must assume the consequences of our actions.

Involuntary Acts and Responsibility

• Involuntary Act: An involuntary act is neither

Politics, Ethics, and Freedom

Politics concerns the governance of citizens. Politics and ethics share a common objective: ethics seeks individual welfare, while politics aims for the collective well-being of the people. According to Aristotle, humans are social and political animals; only beasts and gods are apolitical. Politics enables us to live in society rather than as savages. However, the problem lies in determining who should rule. It's challenging to identify who should hold power because the majority can sometimes impose a "tyranny of the majority," where individual or minority interests suffer. The division of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial) emerged from the 17th and 18th centuries to address the problem of corruption... Continue reading "Politics, Ethics, and Freedom: A Philosophical Examination" »