Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Justice as the State's Purpose: Plato

Some thinkers believe the State's main function is to ensure justice, a view held by Plato. However, discrepancies arise when defining justice.

Justice: A Virtue of the Soul

Plato believed humans are composed of body and soul. The soul has three parts:

• Rational (knowledge)
• Volitional (ambition and will)
• Appetitive (desires)

Each part has a specific virtue:

• Rational: Wisdom/Prudence
• Volitional: Strength/Courage
• Appetitive: Temperance

According to Plato, justice exists when each part of the soul fulfills its respective virtue.

Justice and Social Order in Plato's Republic

Plato's Republic describes a just state analogous to the human soul, with three classes:

• Philosopher-Rulers (wisdom)
• Guardians/Warriors (courage)
• Producers

Augustine's Inner Search

Augustine is a major figure in Christian philosophy. He believed that God is the source of all reality, truth, and goodness. For Augustine, the search for God begins with self-examination. He believed that God knows us from within, and the soul, as an image of God, is the starting point for this quest. Augustine rejected the Platonic idea of finding truth in the external world, instead advocating for an inner quest to analyze the contents of consciousness.

Faith and Reason in Augustine's Thought

Some Christian philosophers believed that faith lies beyond human capabilities and rejected reason's interference. Augustine, however, saw faith and reason as complementary. He believed that God gave us reason and that religion... Continue reading "Augustine's Philosophy: Faith, Reason, and Divine Illumination" »

A Century of Crisis

René Descartes (1596-1650) developed his philosophy during the 17th century, a period marked by political and religious upheaval. This crisis led to a loss of established foundations, resulting in doubt and a search for new certainties.

Key Characteristics of the 17th Century

• Absolutism: The absolute authority of the monarch, mirroring Descartes' aim to establish absolute knowledge.
• Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church's efforts to maintain Christian unity through the Inquisition, leading to religious wars like the Thirty Years' War (in which Descartes participated).
• Baroque: An artistic movement expressing transience, pessimism, and disorder, exemplified by figures like Molière, Calderón de la Barca, Cervantes, Velázquez,

Positivism vs. Habermas
Auguste Comte:
Born in Montpellier, France, January 19, 1789; died in Paris, September 5, 1857. He is considered the founder of positivism and the discipline of sociology. He early rejected traditional Catholic and monarchical doctrines. In 1848, he founded a Positivist Society.
Jürgen Habermas:
Born in Dusseldorf, Germany in 1929. He studied at the Frankfurt School and became a leading representative of Critical Theory.
Positivism:
Positivism, a philosophical trend since the 19th century, greatly influenced politics and knowledge. It asserts that only scientific knowledge, achieved through the scientific method, is authentic. Positivism is characterized by being useful, true, accurate, and constructive, without accepting... Continue reading "Positivism vs. Habermas: A Comparative Analysis" »

Empirical Standpoint: The Superiority of Sensory Experience

At an epistemological level, Nietzsche adopts an empirical standpoint, establishing the superiority of sensory experience over reason. The senses show us the real world; they are sharp observation instruments that reveal minor differences. In contrast, reason falsifies the testimony of the senses, creating an apparent world and misleading us.

Anthropological Level: A Vital Perspective Against Dualism

At an anthropological level, from a vital perspective, Nietzsche criticizes the dualism of the ailing Western metaphysical tradition. He claims the health of the body as a vital force to impose its reality. Platonic dualism is rejected for sentencing the soul to the prison of the body. Similarly,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics: Embracing Sensory Experience" »

Plato's Republic: Building the Just City (367e-376e)

Socrates proposes investigating social justice and individual justice by witnessing the spectacle of a city's birth, observing how justice and injustice might arise within it.

The Necessary City: Meeting Basic Needs

The city originates from the lack of individual self-sufficiency. To meet basic needs—food, shelter, and clothing—the city will require:

• Farmers
• Masons
• Weavers
• Shoemakers

The different natural abilities of individuals suggest applying the principle of functional specialization to increase productivity and improve product quality. To provide tools and materials, the city will also need carpenters, blacksmiths, cattlemen, and shepherds. Lack of self-sufficiency will necessitate traders... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Justice in the Ideal City and Soul" »

Ethics: Duty vs. Happiness

Immanuel Kant was a renowned philosopher who significantly shifted philosophical thought, influencing many authors after him. This analysis reflects on his ethical duty compared with the ideas of earlier authors.

Kant's Categorical Imperative

Kant aimed to develop a unique ethical framework applicable universally, enabling the distinction between right and wrong in any situation. According to Kant, theoretical reason makes judgments against practical reason, which are mandatory. These form the pillars of ethics, devoid of empirical content because experience does not provide universal knowledge. These principles originate from our being a priori. Kant distinguishes between categorical and hypothetical imperatives. Categorical... Continue reading "Kant's Duty Ethics Versus Aristotle and Epicurus" »

Understanding Anthropological Dualism

3-Dualism Anthropological.

It consists of the separation of the human mind and body. The debate has been kept alive since ancient times until today, often referred to as the soul-body duality. Even Plato said that the body is the prison of the soul.

If we conform to peek at this issue only in its modern approach, we note that the conception of humanity becomes a major problem, especially with all those metaphysical conceptions that are based on a split reality into two radically different classes of substances:

The extent or physical substance, conceived from mathematics and entirely governed by the laws of mechanics.

The thought or psychic reality, conceived from logic and one which has no place in the book.... Continue reading "Understanding Anthropological Dualism: Mind and Body" »

Historical Context

Karl Marx emerged during the Industrial Revolution and the social struggles of the 19th century. He adopted the Hegelian view of history as a process of reality, affirmation, denial, and self-improvement. Marx asserted that the true subject of history is not the spirit but the flesh-and-blood human being who produces their own life and social existence through labor in relation to nature. Marx envisioned a classless society where individuals are truly free, masters of their own work and being. To achieve this, Marx analyzed capitalism, where private ownership dominates, and proposed a workers' revolution to establish an egalitarian society. He envisioned a community forming a classless society, moving beyond the class structures... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Philosophy: Class Struggle, Alienation, and Capitalism" »