Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Historical Framework of Thomas Aquinas's Philosophy

The philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas developed in the 13th century, a period representing the greatest flowering of medieval Europe. France served as the cultural and political center, enjoying a stable economy driven by flourishing trade, a stable currency, increasing circulation of precious metals, and the consolidation of papal power. The artisan guild system reached its zenith during this era. Denying the existence of God was dangerous, and the prevailing Augustinian philosophy assumed God's existence.

Sociocultural Context: The Rise of Universities

The 13th century is notable for the appearance and rise of universities, including prominent institutions like Bologna, Oxford, and Salamanca.... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas's Philosophy: Thirteenth-Century Foundations and Core Ideas" »

Locke's Empiricism: Common Sense and Ideas

John Locke, in a Cartesian manner, defends the need to reflect on one's own knowledge. Following Cartesian principles, he defines knowledge as the agreement or disagreement between ideas, and not as an agreement between ideas and things, as classical thought did. This shift from classical thought means modern philosophy focuses not on what the world is in itself, but on what happens within our consciousness – that is, all of our ideas.

Idea Source and Type

Descartes claimed that the mind has innate ideas generated by our own reason. Locke rejects this possibility, arguing that reason is not creative, but rather receives content, merely perceiving the agreement or disagreement between these contents.... Continue reading "Locke and Berkeley: Empiricism, Ideas, and the Nature of Reality" »

Circumstances that Foster Global Citizenship

Several factors contribute to the rise of global citizenship. These include:

• Shortening distances between people across the globe.
• Disappearing borders.
• Development of advanced communication technologies.

These changes raise hope for humanity to work together to build a better world and achieve shared happiness.

Key Changes in the 20th Century

• Disappearance of physical borders.
• Automatic, direct, and immediate communication with anyone worldwide.
• Access to any information.
• Ability to engage in dialogue and make friends without leaving one's chair.
• Access to images and real-time processing of events on television.

Advantages of New Technologies

• Improvement in personal development.
• Enhanced staff training and quality

Descartes: A Transition to Modern Philosophy

Descartes lived during the Renaissance, a period of transition between medieval and modern philosophy. Key features of this era include:

• Decomposition of feudalism: The emergence of a new class-based society.
• Loss of medieval religious meaning: A shift from theocentrism to anthropocentrism, with the rise of national monarchies.
• Secular spirit: Civil power and politicians distanced themselves from the Church.
• Discoveries: New geographical and scientific discoveries expanded the known world.
• Reformation: The breakdown of religious unity.
• The new science: A focus on mathematizing the observable world.
• Everything: The problem of actually going into the background.

Rationalism in the 17th and 18th Centuries

Rationalism... Continue reading "Descartes: Rationalism and the Cartesian Method" »

Asymmetry Between Hypothesis Justification and Refutation

Arguments used to justify and refute a hypothesis ($H$) often appear symmetrical. Both typically involve two conditions and an experiment resulting from the premises. However, this symmetry is broken when the argument for justification further demands that Condition 1 be fulfilled.

The reason for this asymmetry is crucial: arguments of type (**) — refutation — are all deductively valid. In contrast, arguments of type (*) — explanation — are only inductively valid, meaning the conclusion is only probable.

We can find counterexamples: cases of the form (*) — justification — where the truth of the premises does not make the conclusion highly probable. That is, the hypothesis might... Continue reading "Deductive and Inductive Logic in Scientific Hypothesis Testing" »

Part Three: Organization for Creation and Sustainability

Item 7: Develop the Will to Act & Form a Group Motor

Go Meet People & Understand the Context

The purpose of community work is the establishment and/or accompaniment of groups in carrying out social development projects.

During the immersion process and gaining knowledge of the social space in which they work, the professional in social intervention often detects a collective problem. Regarding this problem, there might be a passive attitude of waiting or demanding action from others. Imagining that a community worker's action develops solely from an explicit request by people can be, in many cases, an error and naive.
It's an error because someone who does not perceive themselves... Continue reading "Fostering Collective Action: Proactive Community Work" »

Power

Power: The capacity to perform a transformation on an object or the potential to become something. It is divided into active and passive:

• Active Power: The ability, power, or authority to enact a transformation on something or to produce something. This understanding of power is present in everyday language, such as when we say a car is powerful or someone has a powerful imagination. Aristotle also uses this notion in psychology, for example, defining the powers and the active powers of the soul.
• Passive Power: The capacity or aptitude to become something else, a determination to acquire a form. Examples of this understanding are present in our language, as when we say that someone has a future as a footballer and is potentially a good player.

Metaphysical Period: 6th Century BC to 17th Century AD

There are two stages:

• Naturalist (5th-6th Century BC): This is the thought of the Greeks, who argued that nature is perfect and eternal. Nature includes the world, humans, and gods.
• Supernatural (5th Century BC to 17th Century AD): The natural world is not as important as the supernatural world. Society returns to the myth.

Naturalism

Nature is the foundation of three branches of philosophy:

• Ethics: Refers to individual behavior and gives reason-based standards to guide it. Conscience must be based on nature.
• Morality: A set of customary rules that tell us what is good and what is bad. Born to criticize from the right.
• Law: Intended to establish standards to guide our conduct in connection with

Understanding Common Logical Fallacies

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument. Recognizing them is crucial for critical thinking and constructing sound arguments.

Types of Logical Fallacies:

• Ad Hominem

  This fallacy involves attacking the person making the argument, rather than addressing the argument itself. For example, dismissing someone's idea because of their personal characteristics or background.

• Tu Quoque

  Meaning "you too," this fallacy attempts to discredit an opponent's argument by asserting that the opponent's past actions or words are inconsistent with their views. It's a form of hypocrisy accusation, deflecting from the argument's substance.

• Ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance)

  This fallacy asserts

Aristotle: The Political Animal

For Aristotle, humans are inherently political animals. He believed that the city arises from a natural progression, starting with the individual, then the family (necessary for reproduction), and finally, society. This allows individuals to not only live but to live well, assuming favorable economic conditions that free some individuals from material tasks, enabling them to pursue uniquely human endeavors.

While Aristotle argued that humans are political animals (meaning they participate in the state's life, not merely live in society), he acknowledged that not all individuals fully realize this potential.

Hobbes: Absolute Sovereignty

Hobbes advocated for individuals to cede their power and strength to a single... Continue reading "Aristotle, Hobbes, and Rousseau: Social Contract Theories" »