Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

The Foundation of Empiricism

David Hume is one of the leading philosophers of empiricism. He proposes a philosophy that considers something true only if it is based on experience or impressions. One important aspect that characterizes his thought is the negation of the Cartesian philosophy of res cogitans. He denies the res infinita and res extensa.

The Origin of Knowledge

As for the origin of knowledge, experience reduces all to sensitive evidence. For empiricists, experience is the fundamental concept of philosophy, as it differentiates what is true from what is not. No one can say that something is true if they have no experience of it. For this reason, Hume denies the validity of abstract ideas and distinguishes two types of ideas:

• Relationships

Mill argues that no individual or group should dictate another's life choices, even with good intentions. This stems from his belief that people's judgments are often clouded by prejudice, superstition, and self-interest. As J.S. Mill states in On Liberty, external power can only be legitimately exercised to prevent harm to others, not to improve an individual physically or morally.

This principle applies to individuals with mature faculties, capable of rational discussion. Mill champions freedom of thought, sentiment, expression, and the freedom to pursue one's own tastes and purposes, provided they do not harm others. He also defends the freedom of assembly and association.

Freedom of Thought and Expression

In On Freedom of Thought and Expression,... Continue reading "John Stuart Mill on Individual Liberty and Its Limits" »

Selection of Leaders

The selection of rulers is divided into the following stages:

1. Stage 1: Childhood to Age 20

   Children are raised apart from their parents to minimize the influence of undesirable habits. Those not selected for leadership by age 20 join the artisan class. During this stage, education focuses on arithmetic, geometry, gymnastics, and observing war.

2. Stage 2: Age 20 to 30

   Studies include arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, astronomy, and harmony. Those who excel advance to Stage 3 and begin studying dialectic.

3. Stage 3: Age 30 to 35

   Students delve into ascending dialectic. Mastery without reliance on the senses is required to proceed to the next stage.

4. Stage 4: Age 35 to 50

   This stage involves descending dialectic, applying learned

On Reality (Physical and Metaphysical)

Let's examine the contrasting views of Plato and Aristotle on reality, being, and causality.

Indicators of Reality

For Plato, reality resides in the realm of Ideas (universals). These Ideas are transcendent, existing separately from the empirical world. They possess a strong ontological status, captured through dialectic. In contrast, Aristotle emphasized primary substance (specific things). He saw form as immanent to matter, inextricably linked to it. While he acknowledged an extra-mental reality captured by understanding and expressed in language, it wasn't independent of matter (moderate ontologism).

The Nature of Being

Plato's concept of Being mirrors Parmenides' attributes, now ascribed to Ideas: unity,... Continue reading "Plato and Aristotle: Reality, Being, and Causality" »

The General Principle of Contradiction

Two contradictory statements cannot both be true. In the legal principle, two conflicting legal norms may not both be valid.

Logic

It is the science of thinking, that is, studying the structures of thought.

Divisions of Logic

• Formal Logic: ("minor logic") The formal study of science; it teaches the rules necessary for correct reasoning.
• Material Logic: ("major logic") Examines the material conditions of science and discusses or addresses reasoning based on the principles on which it depends.

Principle of Identity: In every true judgment, the subject concept is identical to the predicate concept.

Principle of Contradiction: Two contradictory judgments cannot be true at the same time and under the same aspect.

Principle

Ethical Theories

An ethical theory is a systematic set of rational ideas about morality. Ethical theories try to identify and substantiate what is good, right action, duty, virtue, responsibility, and moral merit. They propose and justify moral conduct, especially in new situations or problems. Normative theories, which are the majority, are divided into two groups: mandatory and theories of virtue. The first answers the question: "What should I do?" and the second answers "What kind of person should I be?" In turn, the overriding theories fall into consequentialist theories and theories of duties. The first places importance on the results and consequences of actions, and the latter denies that good consequences are what makes an action right... Continue reading "Ethical Theories: Consequentialism, Egoism, and Kantianism" »

Reason vs. Passion: Understanding the Human Mind

In the realm of the human mind, it is possible to distinguish two major classes of processes. The first class is characterized by the ego seeing itself as a subject agent. In this state, the "I" actively assents to propositions, adopts beliefs, and makes conscious decisions. The second class of processes is characterized by the "I" seeing itself as a subject patient. Here, the "I" does not feel as though it is choosing its desires, feelings, or thoughts. Instead, these desires, emotions, and feelings seem to arise spontaneously within, as if they are being suffered.

Believing, remembering, imagining, judging, etc., are deliberate processes in that the "I" chooses whether or not to engage in them.... Continue reading "Reason vs. Passion: Understanding the Human Mind and Its Driving Forces" »

The Platonic Conception of Ideas

For Plato, ideas are substantial in nature. Ideas are not produced by independent thought and do not arise from things. Ideas are independent because they have semantic consistency; that is, they have their own meaning no matter what we decide, and when someone knows an idea, it is called the same (because the thought when he sees it is the same), and universal ideas do not arise from particular things.

For Plato, the world is full of thinking beings and things, but as ideas do not come from them, the ideas have to be in another world. He says that in the sensible world, things are finite, mutable, unintelligible, and individual, and this is where we are. While in the world of ideas, things are infinite, immutable,... Continue reading "Plato's Dualism: Sensible World vs. World of Forms" »

Core Concepts: Impulses, Feelings, and Moral Ethics

This document outlines fundamental concepts related to human behavior, emotions, and ethical frameworks.

Impulses and Feelings

• Impulses: Involuntary actions that drive us to act.
• Feelings: Emotional attitudes, both positive and negative.

Reason and Will

• Reason: The faculty that allows us to use our intelligence to anticipate consequences.
• Will: The faculty by which we make decisions and strive to align our actions with our desires.

Personality and Temperament

• Personality: The psychological set of features that define us as individuals.
• Temperament: A psychological component of personality derived from our inherent nature.

Values and Standards

• Value: A principle we hold in high esteem and strive to uphold.

Understanding Moral, Legal, and Social Norms

In today's pluralistic society, the legitimacy of political power can only be configured as rational-legal. Procedures must be established to ensure the agreement of all members of society regarding rules of social order and rules of coexistence. There are different types of standards that guide the conduct of individuals in society:

• Moral rules have a universal requirement, indicating how anyone should behave if they want to behave humanly. Each person has to assume these rules consciously and freely, as they are binding in conscience. These rules are the area of morality.
• Legal standards are set by the authorities within each political community and are addressed to all inhabitants of the territory.