Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Fundamental Concepts of Ethics and Morality

This examination delves into the historical moral philosophy, its structure, and origin. However, it extends beyond mere description, aiming to develop a transcultural moral system—a universal framework valid for all cultures, which we term "ethics." This pursuit utilizes three core concepts:

• Moral: A normative system within a society that defines what constitutes good and bad behaviors. Morals are diverse, varying significantly across different cultures.
• Philosophy of Morality: The study of morals as an integral part of human culture, analyzing their genealogy and criteria for validity.
• Ethics: A moral-cultural framework developed through reason, drawing upon the moral experiences of those within a

Understanding Philosophy and Key Concepts

Etymology of Philosophy

Philo (friend or lover) + Sofia (wisdom) = Love of wisdom.

Origins of Philosophy

Birthplace: Ionia, 6th century BC.

Exploring Myths and Logos

Understanding Myths

Myths turn to legendary characters. They are imaginative or fantastic stories. The author is always unknown and collective. They have a traditional and uncritical character.

The Transition from Myth to Logos

The passage from myth to logos involves the emergence of rational thought and reflection (logos), which takes the place of the traditional mythic explanations uncritically accepted (myth).

Defining Philosophy

Key Features of Philosophy

• Rational: Based on logical arguments.
• Systematic: Requires that all claims are related and

State Formation Methods

How does a state begin to exist? States can arise in several ways:

• A colony declares independence from its motherland.
• Two or more states merge to form a new state.
• New states emerge from the dismemberment of an existing state.
• A community establishes a state in a terra nullius (territory belonging to no one).

In each case, a state legally exists when its essential elements are met. The principle of effectiveness prevails in international law. A mere declaration of independence is insufficient; the lack of legitimacy from the former ruling entity does not prevent state formation.

State Extinction

States can cease to exist through:

• Fusion: Two or more states unite to form a new, larger state, losing their original identities.
• Incorporation/

1. How Augustine understands the relationship between faith and reason?
The reason itself is not enough for alkane enough to reach the truth, because by nature is limited, weak and imperfect. Reason must submit to the faith. 2. What makes St. Augustine with Plato's philosophy? Explain. Theory of Knowledge. Adaptation of Plato to Christianity. Man must seek the truth in the outside, because the sensitivity is too unstable. Only in the interiority of the soul will find the sage wisdom. 3. What historical event promotes historical reflection of St. Augustine?
A) The two cities in a work of St. Augustine which was first carried out a philosophy of history. From 410, the pagans to Christianity accused of being responsible for the ruin of the... Continue reading "Medieval philosophy as a confluence of faith and reason" »

Descartes: *Res Cogitans* and Mechanism

The First Principle: *Cogito Ergo Sum*

Applying the first rule of his method—to accept only clear and distinct ideas—Descartes concludes that the first glimmer of truth is "I think." From this, he raises the fundamental question: "What am I?"

Descartes' Conception of Substance

To explain the essence of the self, we must understand these concepts:

• Substance: That which needs nothing else to exist (only applicable absolutely to God).
• Mode: That which needs a substance to exist.
• Attribute: The essential characteristic of a substance.

Descartes distinguishes three types of substances:

1. The self, whose attribute is thinking.
2. God, whose attribute is perfection.
3. The world, whose attribute is extension.

*Res Cogitans*

1. Rights and Duties of Students and Non-Teaching Staff

Education plays a crucial role in transmitting societal values, fostering coexistence, and promoting mutual respect. As stated in Article 1 of Organic Law 1/1990 of October 3, on the General Organization of the Educational System, a primary objective of the educational system is to train individuals in respecting fundamental freedoms and exercising tolerance within a democratic framework.

Achieving this requires not only appropriate educational content but also a conducive learning environment. School regulations should cultivate responsibility, diligence, and effort, enabling students to maximize their learning outcomes and develop positive habits. Students must feel that these standards... Continue reading "Students' Rights & Duties: Fostering Responsible Learning Environments" »

Defining Science

Science is a type of knowledge distinct from ordinary knowledge. Ordinary knowledge often focuses on the result of an event, whereas a scientist questions its cause. Science establishes relationships between concepts and formulates laws, asserting that these relationships occur regularly.

Understanding Knowledge

A person knows an event if and only if:

• The subject believes in that event.
• The subject's belief in the event is rationally justified.
• The event is true.

Scientific Knowledge

The scientific community knows a theory if and only if:

• The scientific community believes in this theory.
• The scientific community's belief in that theory is rational and scientifically justified.

These conditions are also necessary; the scientific community... Continue reading "The Nature of Science: Concepts, Criteria, and Categories" »

Understanding Parts of Speech in English Grammar

In English grammar, words are categorized into different classes based on their function and meaning within a sentence. These categories, known as parts of speech, are fundamental to constructing clear and grammatically correct sentences.

Determiners and Pronouns

Determiners

Determiners are words that precede a noun to specify its meaning or reference. They help to clarify whether the noun is general or specific, and indicate quantity or possession.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that replace a noun, preventing repetition. They never appear with the noun they replace. Both determiners and pronouns carry significant grammatical meaning.

Articles

The article is a variable word that allows for variations in... Continue reading "Essential English Grammar: Understanding Parts of Speech" »

Historical Context (16th & 17th Centuries)

The Renaissance marked a return to classical ideals. In contrast, the Baroque period was a time of crisis, particularly for Spain, which lost its hegemony. Several problems arose:

Societal Shifts

After the Renaissance, the economic and cultural center shifted from Italy and Spain to France, Holland, and England. This led to a societal crisis:

• Economic Crisis: Agriculture-based economies suffered from poor harvests and famine.
• Social Hierarchy: Existing class structures began to crumble.
• Political Instability: Wars and revolts were common.

Religious and Intellectual Upheavals

• Religious Conflicts: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation caused tension between Catholics and Protestants.
• Scientific Revolution:

Language

A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or words that enables people to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. It studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

Pragmatics

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used. It studies how context contributes to meaning, considering factors like time, place, and social situation.

Metalinguistics

The study of language and its relationship to other cultural behaviors. It involves using language to talk about language itself.

Thinking

The process of using one's mind to consider or reason about something. It involves forming ideas, mental images, and understanding existence,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Language, Logic, and Reading Comprehension" »