Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophy is an activity that reflects on concepts. It involves examining concepts without preconceived notions and responding with arguments or reasoning, similar to Aristotle's approach. According to him, the origin of philosophy lies in the admiration for strange phenomena that we don't understand by nature or because we lack instinctive explanations. Explanations can be:

• Pre-rational: Myths are explanations based on imagination. These fantasy stories tell of supernatural beings and random events.
• Rational: These explanations originated in Miletus (6th century BC) due to its geographical location and commercial activity. The rise of democracy in Miletus contributed to the development of rational reasoning.

Types of Rational Explanations:

• Scientific

Aristotle's Metaphysics: Being and Substance (First Philosophy)

The subject of metaphysics is being. In this part of his philosophy, Aristotle attempts to synthesize previous theories, particularly Plato's, before proposing his own framework.

The central issue Aristotle addresses is finding a compromise between two opposing concepts previously established:

• "There is only what does not change (which reason knows)."
• "Being is everything that is shown at the time, thus changing."

Aristotle's solution is that 'being' neither has a unique meaning nor the meaning everyone wants to give, but rather has a primary meaning related to one thing: substance (or substantiality).

The substantial form is the principle of existence for living beings, which is the... Continue reading "Aristotle's Core Philosophy: Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Politics" »

John Locke (1632–1704): Father of Liberalism

John Locke is considered the father of political liberalism. His most important work is Two Treatises of Government.

The Social Contract and Consent of the Governed

The main idea of Locke's philosophy is that the power of rulers is based on the consent of the governed.

The State of Nature (Locke)

For Locke, civil government arises through a social contract. His State of Nature is characterized by:

• Complete Equality: No one is above anyone else.
• Perfect Freedom: Individuals can do whatever they want with themselves and their properties.
• Natural Law Limit: This freedom has a limit—the obligation not to harm others.

Men leave the State of Nature because not all individuals adhere to natural law; some violate... Continue reading "Locke vs. Hobbes: Contrasting Social Contract Theories" »

The Sophists and Athenian Democracy

Sophists and Socrates represented the concerns and interests of Athenian democracy. In this critical period, freedom and law were important issues, with law central to most discussions. The Sophists considered value management poorly, contrasting it with permanent and universal characteristics. The contrast between law (*nomos*) and nature (*physis*) became the subject of the moment.

The Sophists were foreigners in Athens and educated connoisseurs, providing new ideas. The word "sophist" was initially a synonym for "wise" but later came to mean "skillful in misleading" (Plato viewed the Sophists as destructive).

As foreigners, the Sophists could not intervene directly in the city's policy, but they educated... Continue reading "Socrates, Sophists, and the Foundations of Athenian Philosophy" »

Truth as Correspondence

The theory of truth as correspondence rests on two assumptions: first, that there is a reality independent of thought, and second, that this reality can be known. This aligns with empiricist and realistic theories of knowledge.

Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas held this view, stating that truth is the correspondence between the intellect and the thing. Russell later refined this theory, proposing an isomorphism between reality and thought. Tarski emphasized the mediating role of language in the process of knowledge.

Truth as Coherence

Theories of truth as coherence are favored by rationalistic or idealistic thinkers like Spinoza, Leibniz, and Hegel. These theories operate at a linguistic level, focusing on the relationships... Continue reading "Understanding Different Perspectives on Truth" »

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development

Pre-conventional Morality

At this level, there is no understanding of social rules. Moral questions are considered only from a personal perspective.

Conventional Morality

Judgments are made based on the rules and expectations of the individual's social group. Moral issues are addressed to maintain membership within the group.

Post-conventional Morality

Individuals understand societal rules but are not limited by them. Thought is governed by principles and values accepted because they are based on general principles. Moral reasoning involves:

• Defining what is good.
• Using reasons to defend the perception of good.

Kohlberg's Moral Education

The goal is to maximize the capacity for moral judgment development through:... Continue reading "Understanding Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development" »

From Myth to Reason: Foundations of Western Philosophy

Mythical Thinking and Its Categories

Mythical thinking attempts to provide answers based on superstition, legend, magic, belief, and chance. We can categorize different types of mythology:

• Cosmogonic: Relates the origin of the universe and the world.
• Anthropogenic: Details the creation of humankind.
• Historical: Relates the origin of a culture or civilization.
• Eschatological: Tells what lies beyond death.

Rational Thought

Rational thought is based on logic. It replaced arbitrary mythological necessity with rational necessity based on laws. This is founded on the conviction that events are governed by natural laws, allowing everything to operate within a rational order.

The Socratic Era and Classical

Kant's Copernican Revolution in Philosophy

The **Copernican Revolution** is Kant's philosophical proposal to understand how **synthetic a priori knowledge** is possible, fundamentally changing the role of the subject in relation to the *a priori* conditions of knowledge.

Kant explains his philosophy using an analogy with the astronomical revolution initiated by Copernicus. Copernicus realized that celestial movement could not be understood under the theory that the Earth was the center of the universe, with the Sun and other celestial objects revolving around it. He finally understood that the Sun is at the center and the Earth revolves around it.

The central problem in philosophy, according to Kant, is explaining synthetic a priori knowledge.... Continue reading "Kant's Core Philosophical Concepts: Revolution, Illusion, and Imperatives" »

Thomas Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and God

Philosophical Approach

Thomas Aquinas, a great scholar and teacher, dedicated his life to teaching and writing. A primary question throughout his work is the relationship between faith and reason. Aquinas sought a balance and reconciliation between the two, based on these principles:

• Clear distinction between reason and faith: Reason is a natural human faculty; faith is a supernatural gift from divine grace.
• Reason cannot contradict revealed truth: If reasoning conflicts with revealed truth, the reasoning is false by definition.
• Three kinds of truths: Truths of natural reason, preambles of faith, and revealed truths.

Aquinas stressed the importance of natural law and reserved a significant place for Aristotelianism.... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham: Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God" »