Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Moral Latin *Morem*: Customs

• Ethics *Ethos*: Customs
• Both terms refer to the science of morals.

• Moral: The set of behavioral standards and values that govern a society at a given time.
• Ethics: Theoretical reflection on the behaviors and norms that shape moral values.

Moral Act

These are actions that can be approved or rejected by society. They must be performed consciously and voluntarily.

• Immoral: Disagreement with moral norms.
• Amoral: Indifferent to moral standards.

Moral Values

Qualities possessed by human actions according to whether they advance the subject in the process of humanization.

Countervalues

They are unfavorable and considered negative.

• E. Purpose: Human beings have a specific purpose in life.
• E. Duty: Seeking ways to ensure that moral standards

Understanding Political Power

Political power is defined as the ability of a person or group to impose its will on others, especially when the imposed behavior is contrary to the wishes or inclinations of those being subjected to it. Power translates into a relationship where one element is controlled, influenced, or determined by the other component of the relationship. Power permeates all aspects of our lives, being exercised within the family and in education. Power relations exist across the entire social fabric.

While there are many areas of power, there are also varying degrees of intensity and different ways it can be exerted. Relationships can be defined as power relations, however, the procedures upon which they are based are very different.... Continue reading "Understanding Political Power and the Social Contract" »

Christian Thomasius: Distinguishing Spheres

In modern times, the distinction between law and morality began to be elaborated by Christian Thomasius (1655-1728). He distinguished three spheres of conduct:

• Moral
• Legal
• Social conventions (customs)

He argued the latter are mere rules of conduct and courtesy without direct reflections in the other two spheres.

Defining Morality

The word 'moral' comes from the Latin mores: a set of practices, customs, standards of conduct within a particular social segment. Every nation, in every era, has its own morality – rules of conduct that meet certain functions and have specific goals. Therefore, what was once considered moral may not be so today (like human sacrifice), and what is considered moral by one people... Continue reading "Law and Morality: Philosophical Distinctions" »

Historical, Philosophical, and Cultural Context of Kant's Moral Philosophy

Immanuel Kant (18th-19th century) wrote Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals in 1785. Kant experienced the government of a "king sergeant" under Frederick William I (1713-1740), but his work was published during the reign of Frederick the Great (1740-1786), an enlightened despot who housed figures like La Mettrie and Voltaire in his court. Their policy reflected an effort of rationalization. The influence of enlightened ideas, primarily from France, was significant in Kant's thinking.

Some key ideas that influenced Kant include:

1. Religion: A position close to deism, exemplified by Voltaire. Kant's writings on religion, particularly "Religion within the Limits of Reason

Negotiation: Strategies and Conflict Resolution

Negotiation is a process in which two or more parties make deals to reconcile their differences. It involves:

• Two or more parties
• A common goal
• Each party looking after its interests
• Peaceful problem-solving

Types of Negotiation

By Object

• Organizational and Management: Relations within the company
• Commercial: Sales
• Legal: Conflict resolution
• Social: Negotiation between employers and workers

By Subject

• Interpersonal: Negotiation between two people in conflict
• Intergroup: Negotiation between groups in conflict
• Direct: Persons involved directly in the negotiation process
• Delegate: Negotiation through a representative
• Third-Party Intervention: Involving a neutral party

By Maneuverability and Influence

• Competitive: Negotiators

Deductive, Inductive, and Analogical Reasoning

When we reason, we use two primary methods: deduction and induction.

Deductive Reasoning

If we start from accepted and reliable premises and infer partial conclusions, we use deductive reasoning. Deductive arguments are useful because, if well-constructed, they are necessarily true. Every good argument from premises must be reliable. In deductive reasoning, the question is not whether the premises are true or false, but whether the argument is valid or invalid—that is, whether the conclusion follows from the premises without any doubt.

Inductive Reasoning

Induction, however, starts with a series of specific observations that are repeated regularly. From this series, a general conclusion is drawn.... Continue reading "Deductive, Inductive, Analogical Reasoning & Rawls' Justice" »

Anthropology

Aristotle

Aristotle views man as a being of the physical world. This differs from Plato, for whom there is a large separation between soul and body. When a person dies, he disappears, but the species remains. Aristotle considers the soul in accordance with the species. Each species has a kind of soul that enables a series of functions, which are hierarchical and differentiate us from other species. These functions are three:

• The vegetative function, which is to nurture and reproduce, and is intended for plants.
• The sensory function, which involves movement and feeling and is developed primarily by animals.
• The rational function, which is the search for truth through reason. It is what gives happiness to men.

These functions are in order... Continue reading "Aristotle and Descartes: Contrasting Views on the Human Soul" »

Cartesian Doubt and Its Underlying Rationale

One of the defining characteristics of Cartesian philosophy is methodical doubt. This rigorous doubt forms the basis of his thought and justifies his method. It's important to note that this isn't skeptical doubt for its own sake; rather, it's a deliberate suspension of previously accepted knowledge for a specific purpose. Descartes establishes three levels of doubt: the level of the senses, the distinction between wakefulness and sleep, and the concept of the "evil genius." All of this is aimed at arriving at certain and indubitable knowledge.

The Unreliability of the Senses

The senses can deceive us, a fact easily observed. We often perceive things differently from how they actually are, such as a... Continue reading "Cartesian Doubt: Unveiling the Foundation of Knowledge" »

What is Meant by Action?

We often perform actions without fully realizing it. An action is a conscious decision we make. It's our intentional behavior.

Involuntary Actions

These actions can be forced upon us, often performed with strength and ignorance due to circumstances.

Voluntary Actions

These actions originate from within the person. They are carried out jointly, sometimes to avoid a greater evil. Strictly speaking, they are conscious and voluntary, though some may be performed out of culpable ignorance.

Elements of Action

Intent

Intent is when we realize something we do routinely.

This can be spontaneous, like hunger, or consciously assumed, like buying a book.

Intentions are consciously accepted inclinations.

Ends and Means

The ends are the desires... Continue reading "Understanding Action, Ethics, and Political Philosophy" »

Kant and the Enlightenment

Immanuel Kant is a central figure of the Enlightenment. He defines Enlightenment as achieving maturity. Kant advocates for every human being to use Reason to determine their destiny. Freedom lies in the responsible use of Reason. Freedom, responsibility, and moral autonomy are inseparable from the Enlightenment and Reason.

Kant's Moral Philosophy

Kant seeks to understand the moral being of man. He asks what can be considered inherently good without qualification, which is goodwill.

Key Features of Kantian Ethics

A main feature of Kantian ethics is that the weight of morality is on the intention, not the consequences. Reason, for Kant, requires universality and necessity in both pure (theoretical) and practical (moral)... Continue reading "Kant's Enlightenment Philosophy: Ethics and Morality" »