Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Mill's Utilitarianism: A Critical Analysis

Instead, I think J. Stuart Mill could not cope with these other considerations:

1. Holding a conception of human nature – to argue that individuals properly educated generally desire happiness – and the historical process – which he said must lead, by the constant progress of the human spirit, the moral development of individuals – that transcends the empirical – not all individuals developed morally, at least in appearance, seeking to conform their conduct to the moral criterion of general happiness and although there are individuals who, in truth, to present the moral, like him, yes they do, we can not make it a general rule – and condemns his moral criterion for the overall utility or happiness

Theme 2: Science and Other Forms of Human Knowledge

1. Science

One characteristic that distinguishes humans from other living beings is our natural curiosity to wonder about the world in which we live and about our human nature.

To satisfy this curiosity, there have been ways of knowing, understanding, explaining, and interpreting the world and human existence. One way is through philosophy.

Another is through science, which seeks to know reality, find the causes of observed phenomena, establish universally valid concepts, and demonstrate rational arguments. Science provides knowledge about the universe.

1.1 The Scientific Explanation: A Brief History

Science has not always been the same. There have been three main models of scientific paradigms:... Continue reading "Science and Human Knowledge: From Ancient Greece to the Renaissance" »

This document explores the intricate relationship between ethics and politics through the lens of prominent modern philosophers: Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, and Immanuel Kant. Their theories offer profound insights into the justification of state power, the origin of morality, and the role of the individual within the political framework.

Thomas Hobbes: The Justification of Absolute Power

Thomas Hobbes's justification in Leviathan has not only political but also moral components. Morality is generated by the same covenant that forms the basis for political power. Absolute political power and morality are designed to serve the individual. The state is conceived as a separate individual, and the sovereign state emerges as the sole source of... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of Ethics and State Power" »

**Editorial: Rousseau, Thinker of Dualities**

Rousseau's dualities reflected the classic *matter-spirit*, *reason-senses*, *understanding-sensitivity*, virtually all philosophical, except materialism.

• This *body-soul* duality is at the base of another: *reason-feelings*. The reason as understood by Rousseau no longer has the Cartesian cold lead to a method for attaining truth. Now, that same reason converted into practice, is a man as a moral compass to be followed by a boost of awareness that is feeling. (...)
• Viewing intelligence and the senses as *active* and *passive* is another duality that serves Rousseau to accuse the first of certain errors when judging what the senses have glimpsed. Unlike Plato and Descartes, the senses are not wrong

1. The Epicurean Calculation of Pleasure and Pain

Epicureanism suggests that pleasure is the ultimate good and pain is evil. However, it emphasizes the importance of calculating pleasures and pains, choosing long-term pleasure over immediate gratification. This involves considering the potential consequences of actions. For example, a student facing an exam might choose to forgo weekend partying (avoiding short-term pleasure) to study and achieve the greater pleasure of a good grade. Similarly, enduring the short-term pain of a dental visit prevents the long-term pain of a lost tooth.

2. Self-Sufficiency as a Great Good in Epicureanism

Self-sufficiency, in Epicureanism, means minimizing dependence on external goods or people for happiness. It... Continue reading "Exploring Key Ethical Theories: Epicureanism, Utilitarianism, and Kantianism" »

Hume's Emotive Moral Theory

Hume's moral theory is a key part of his plan to build a science of human nature with scientific rigor comparable to that achieved by Newton in the natural sciences. The science of human nature does not end with the explanation of knowledge, but must include a justification of the principles governing human behavior.

Hume's ethical theory is based on the refusal to accept that reason can be the foundation of moral life. Moral rationalism has been the dominant ethical explanation since the beginning of philosophy, with the exception of the moral theory of the Sophists. Hume considers that moral rationalism has made an error, as it confuses the field of theoretical philosophy and practical philosophy by not drawing clear... Continue reading "Hume's Emotivism: The Role of Feelings in Moral Judgments" »

Foundational Questions and Shared Commitments

The theories of knowledge proposed by Plato and Marx represent two distinct yet interconnected approaches to a fundamental question: What is the reality we need to know? Despite radical differences in their philosophical systems, both thinkers shared a profound commitment to transforming the societies in which they lived through philosophy. Just as Plato was a political thinker aiming to reform ancient Athens, Marx was a political thinker seeking to change the social reality of the 19th and 20th centuries through his philosophical insights. However, the distinctions between these two influential authors are profound.

Contrasting Ontologies: Idealism Versus Materialism

A primary divergence lies in their... Continue reading "Plato and Marx: Divergent Paths to Social Transformation" »

Fundamental Concepts of Ethics and Morality

This examination delves into the historical moral philosophy, its structure, and origin. However, it extends beyond mere description, aiming to develop a transcultural moral system—a universal framework valid for all cultures, which we term "ethics." This pursuit utilizes three core concepts:

• Moral: A normative system within a society that defines what constitutes good and bad behaviors. Morals are diverse, varying significantly across different cultures.
• Philosophy of Morality: The study of morals as an integral part of human culture, analyzing their genealogy and criteria for validity.
• Ethics: A moral-cultural framework developed through reason, drawing upon the moral experiences of those within a

Understanding Philosophy and Key Concepts

Etymology of Philosophy

Philo (friend or lover) + Sofia (wisdom) = Love of wisdom.

Origins of Philosophy

Birthplace: Ionia, 6th century BC.

Exploring Myths and Logos

Understanding Myths

Myths turn to legendary characters. They are imaginative or fantastic stories. The author is always unknown and collective. They have a traditional and uncritical character.

The Transition from Myth to Logos

The passage from myth to logos involves the emergence of rational thought and reflection (logos), which takes the place of the traditional mythic explanations uncritically accepted (myth).

Defining Philosophy

Key Features of Philosophy

• Rational: Based on logical arguments.
• Systematic: Requires that all claims are related and