Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge and Truth

Understanding how we acquire and validate knowledge is central to philosophy. Various schools of thought offer distinct views on the nature of truth and certainty.

Dogmatism: Certainty in Knowledge

Dogmatism is a philosophical position asserting that we can acquire safe and universal knowledge, and that absolute certainty is attainable. It extends its defense to more positive forms of knowledge. A key figure associated with this attitude is René Descartes.

Skepticism: Questioning the Possibility of Knowledge

Skepticism stands as the opposite of dogmatism. Moderated skepticism questions whether it is possible to have sure and firm knowledge, while radical skepticism denies this possibility entirely,... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on Truth and Scientific Progress" »

Hume's Critique of Causality

The Empirical Basis of Causality

Hume's analysis of causality stems from empirical observation. He argues that causality is a relationship established by the mind, based on the psychological mechanisms of habit and custom. Repeated experiences create habits, which in turn form our beliefs about the future. We expect events to repeat in the future based on past occurrences due to habit.

Causality and A Priori Knowledge

Hume asserts that causal relationships cannot be known a priori. Reasoning alone, without experience, cannot reveal cause-and-effect relationships. For example, analyzing the concept of 'fire' doesn't inherently include the notion of 'pain'. Causal relationships are not between ideas; our knowledge... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism and the Illusion of Causality" »

The Myth of Pure, Closed Societies

Due to globalization, it is now impossible to consider cultures as bounded or isolated entities. Cultural exchange is not a secondary phenomenon but rather integral to the core of cultural identity. Instead, this exchange is now substantive, to the extent that diverse cultural identities are currently formed from a selected combination of features of varied origin. This reality renders the idea of 'pure societies' a mere literary fantasy or a more or less radical political utopia, far removed from the deeply effective anthropological reality of our time.

The Unfinished Nature of Humanity

Nature and society define what is human, but they do not render it something finished or complete. Thus, humanity, precisely... Continue reading "Cultural Identity, Unfinished Humanity, and Culture's Moral Purpose" »

Understanding Scientific Methods and Explanations

Language in Scientific Inquiry

The distinction between artificial and natural language is crucial in scientific discourse. Natural language serves primarily as a means of communication, whereas artificial languages are specifically designed for precise scientific explanation. Artificial languages encompass formal systems like logic and mathematics. While human language can be inherently vague, artificial languages provide the necessary clarity and rigor for scientific endeavors.

Types of Scientific Explanations

Scientific explanations can be categorized based on their approach and the phenomena they address:

• Deductive Explanations: Characteristic of natural sciences (e.g., physics) and formal sciences

Plato: Life and Times

Plato was born around 428/427 BC and died in 347 BC in Athens. He was educated in the Spartan model. A disciple of Socrates, he witnessed his death. With the intention of combining philosophy and its application to policy, he left Athens and traveled to Egypt, where he assimilated mathematics. He also traveled to Megara and Syracuse, where he met Dion, who became his student. He founded the Academy in Athens, where he spent his last years, teaching music, mathematics, and the possibility of attaining absolute truth.

Political Vocation

Plato began searching for the ideal government because democracy was triumphant. Socrates' philosophical idealism clashed with the authorities, causing his unjust death. This drove Plato to... Continue reading "Plato's Life, Philosophy, and Impact" »

An Approach to Ethics and Morals

The Etymology of Ethics

The word ethics comes from the Greek and has two meanings. The first term comes from the word ethos, meaning custom or habit. Later, this originated from the word ēthos, which means way of life or character. Aristotle believed that the two words are inseparable. Ethics lies in the moral conscience of every human being and serves as an engine, brake, or steering wheel, as appropriate, for the time of action.

Understanding the Scope of Ethics

Ethics is a concept that encompasses a variety of meanings. The word ethos has a much broader sense than that given to the word ethics. Ethics includes the disposition of man in life, character, custom, and morals. We could translate it as "the mode or... Continue reading "Ethics and Morality: Understanding the Principles" »

The Death of God: A Critique of Western Metaphysics and Culture

The concept of the "death of God" in Nietzsche's philosophy represents a profound critique of traditional Western values, particularly those rooted in Christianity. Nietzsche viewed Christianity as a form of "vulgar Platonism," characterized by a fundamental division between two realms:

• The external, "real" world: This is the transcendent, otherworldly realm, often associated with the afterlife or the Platonic world of perfect, eternal Forms.
• The internal, "illusory" world: This is the earthly, imperfect realm of sensory experience.

Nietzsche argued that this Platonic-Christian worldview has had a pervasive influence on Western thought, tracing a clear line of continuity from Plato'... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Death of God and the Superman" »

This document delves into one of the initial chapters of Immanuel Kant's seminal work, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Here, Kant analyzes ethics as it manifests in sound natural understanding, without needing formal instruction.

The Concept of Good Will

Kant states that an absolutely good will is one with which we act. According to Kant, a good will is achieved independently of whether its purposes are realized, provided the effort is made to attain it.

Duty and Moral Action

To clarify the concept of good will, Kant introduces the concept of duty, distinguishing between different types of actions:

• Actions conforming to duty: Performed in accordance with duty, but potentially for ulterior motives.
• Actions done from duty: Performed purely

The Human Being as a Person

Defining Personhood: Roman Law and Christianity

Roman law and Christianity significantly advanced the concept of the person. In ancient Rome, people were recognized as subjects of rights and duties. Individuals could operate freely and were responsible for their own actions. A person does not need anyone to dictate their actions; they are the source of duty and morality.

In Christianity, it is believed that every human being is a creature with a soul, capable of receiving rewards or punishments according to their performance. This underscores the value of the person as an autonomous entity with its own identity, especially with a permanence and continuity that does not end in this life. A person is an end in itself.... Continue reading "Defining Personhood and Cultural Frameworks" »

Human Origins and Development

Creationism vs. Evolution

Creationism posits the separate and final creation of all living species. In contrast, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) introduced the concept of evolution, where species undergo continuous transformations through natural selection. Mendel's work on biological inheritance further refined our understanding of how traits are passed down. Modern evolutionary theory combines natural selection with mutations.

Theories of Human Origin

There are several theories regarding the origin of our species. The multiregional theory (Wolpoff) suggests that Homo sapiens arose from different prehistoric populations worldwide through continuous gene flow. The "Out of Africa" theory (Stringer)... Continue reading "Human Evolution, Culture, and Behavior" »