Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Understanding Philosophical Concepts and Thinkers

Inductive and Deductive Methods

Inductive Method

The inductive method is a scientific approach that derives general conclusions from specific premises. This common scientific method involves four key stages:

1. Observation and recording of facts
2. Analysis and classification of facts
3. Inductive derivation of a generalization from the facts
4. Verification or contrast of the generalization

Deductive Method

The deductive method is a scientific approach where the conclusion is implicit within the premises. If deductive reasoning is valid and the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

Pythagoras: Philosopher and Mathematician

Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher and mathematician, renowned for the Pythagorean... Continue reading "Understanding Inductive, Deductive Methods & Key Philosophers" »

Freedom: Definition and Types

Freedom is the power that human beings have to act according to their intelligence and will. Types of freedom include:

• External Freedom: The absence of pressure from external forces, allowing the subject to act without complete coercion.
• Internal Freedom: Exercised in a supportive environment, where an individual can build their life and pursue self-imposed goals. This includes:
  • Freedom of exercise.
  • Freedom of specification.
  • Moral Freedom.
  • Biological Freedom.

Determinism and its Forms

Natural determinism is the idea that human beings are not outside nature, but part of it.

• Physical Determinism: Considers that while human beings are more complex than other objects, their actions are determined.
• Biological Determinism: Considers

Understanding Interpersonal Dynamics

Human relations refer to the interactions between individuals who consciously exchange information through language, gestures, and other forms of communication. These interactions are not always voluntary.

Personal Relationships: Voluntary Connections

Personal relationships are voluntary human connections based on our individual tastes and preferences. They involve several key aspects:

• Being Comprehensive with Others: This involves considering the needs, desires, and feelings of others.
• Being Critical of Prejudices: Refuse to judge someone before you know them and appreciate others for their behavior.
• Being Respectful: Respect the rights of others, especially their dignity. Things can have a price, but people

A written text is a unit that discusses a specific topic with a specific purpose. It is composed of a series of sentences that maintain syntactic relations between them.

Key Elements of Effective Writing

• Consistency is the proper management of ideas. A paragraph, a portion of text that is enclosed by a full stop, helps us to verify consistency. Depending on how ideas are ordered, the structure can be analytic or synthetic.

• Cohesion refers to lexical items that connect different sentences, linking them together. Discourse markers are linked by lexical-semantic relationships or repetition.

• Adequacy occurs when there is a good correspondence between what is said and how it is said.

Discourse Markers

• Order: First, after
• Consecutive: Therefore, for
• Contrastive:

Philosophers Who Have Spoken of Methods

Francis Bacon

According to Francis Bacon, the purpose of knowledge is dominion over nature and transformation for the benefit of man. Through science, human beings must be able to establish on Earth "his kingdom or domain." This domain first requires a deep understanding of nature and its mechanisms. In his work, the English philosopher sought to overcome the inductive method of Aristotle (syllogism) by replacing it with a new inductive method. The inductive procedure is only effective if one first identifies and rejects prejudice.

Galileo Galilei

The experimental method of Galileo was presented and made public in the book Il Saggiatore, the most philosophical of his works. This method is divided into the... Continue reading "Philosophical Methods: Bacon, Galileo, and Descartes" »

Hans Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law: Ethics and Legal Science

According to Hans Kelsen, ethics is a manifestation of morality, which, unlike law, is not coercive. Kelsen views law as a system of coercive norms.

Kelsen's Pure Science of Law

Kelsen proposes a "pure" science of law, drawing inspiration from Kant's concept of pure reason. To achieve this, he separates legal science, as a normative science, from the empirical sciences. He also distinguishes between the concepts of law and morality. Kelsen defines law, not morality, with a set of coercive norms. Morality, while influencing behavior, lacks the coercive enforcement mechanism inherent in law. This analysis is conducted by examining the object (natural or social) and the method (causal –... Continue reading "Hans Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law: Ethics, Interpretation, Integration" »

Social Contract Theories

The justification of the state: contractualism: Social Contract: "According to the agreement among the community to enforce laws and make the state appear." They are the citizens who decide to cede power to an authority and legitimacy. These theories are contractualism. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. Two forms of state:

• a) State of nature: Describes Life as it would not exist without the state
• b) Welfare state: People are forced to organize on the basis of an agreement or covenant.

Thomas Hobbes

First to use the term social contract. He understood the state of nature and justification of the rule as follows:

1. a) State of Nature. "Homo homini lupus" Man is a wolf to man, without a state is governed by the law of the jungle. The

Hume and Descartes: Shared Ideas

Similarities between Hume and Descartes:

1. Hume, a learned individual, shares with Descartes the ideal and pursuit of autonomous reason—a reason liberated from all authority, serving as the sole guide in understanding reality, morality, and societal theories.
2. Both Descartes' rationalism and Hume's empiricism share a concern for the problem of knowledge: reason, nature, scope, and limits. They place the theme of knowledge at the center of their philosophies.
3. The emergence of both philosophies is closely connected with modern science. Hume applied Newton's physics method to the study of human nature. His greatest aspiration was, as he stated, to become the Newton of moral sciences.

Key Differences: Rationalism vs.

Plato's Dialectics: A Path to the World of Ideas

Dialectics, the superior form of knowledge, refers to the World of Ideas, to the immutable, universal, and eternal. It is identified with philosophy itself. Plato conceived dialectics in two ways: firstly, as a rational method that uses no sensible signs, employing only reason. It rests on "assumptions" but attempts to dispense with any recourse to the senses. Philosophy, which is synonymous with dialectics, is a more reflective knowledge, one that leaves no question without examination or assessment. The goal of dialectics is to discover the relationships between ideas and to seek the ultimate foundation of all: the Idea of the Good. True philosophy is "an ascent to being": the philosopher must... Continue reading "Plato's Dialectics and the Theory of Ideas: Understanding Reality" »

Lesson 3: 19th-Century Scientific Paradigm

Analytical Jurisprudence in England

The motion encoder also develops its own characteristics in England, where we speak rather of analytical jurisprudence. We might say that the notion is more properly analytic, beginning in the 19th century, and that is mainly due to Austin. In England, the most complete theory of coding was carried out. Coding, in this case, will not be as in France. England did not establish codes as strict as in France, but Bentham developed the possibility of a codification of general validity.

Bentham's Legal, Political, and Economic Reflections

Bentham reflected on the legal, political, and economic, and to some extent, adopted a perspective that deals with an analytical stance.... Continue reading "19th-Century Legal Theories: Bentham's Utilitarianism and Jurisprudence" »