Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

5. Therefore, although these things - the old opinions that things exist and are as I perceive them - are very likely a form that is more reasonable to believe in than to deny, I will temporarily pretend to be doubtful that they are entirely false and misleading. 6. Assume, therefore, not that God - which is all goodness and the supreme source of truth - deceives me, but that a genius or evil spirit, an astute and powerful trickster, has put all its deceiving industry into thinking of the sky, air, earth, colors, shapes, sounds, and all other external things as illusions and deceptions to get my credulity. I impose resisting the wiles of the great deceiver.

Critique of Cartesian Skepticism

The critical question is why?

1. Establishing a universal

Volition

Knowledge can be an asset to a person, and if so, they tend to possess it intentionally. However, knowing is insufficient; the will is decisive in personal life. The will's existence is the power to will and act. Intellectual knowledge seeks the good, as the object level involves volitional good for humans to be the proper object of goodwill.

Will depends on intellectual activity because to desire something, we must grasp it as good, hence the intellect's superiority. However, once this principle is established, the will takes precedence over understanding because personal fulfillment depends on it. The best person acts rightly, and it is the will that moves the mind to think of an object.

In short, the will decides specifically human... Continue reading "Understanding Volition and Morality: Human Actions and Ethics" »

Rationalism vs. Empiricism: Core Tenets

Shared Ground and Key Differences

Rationalism and empiricism share common ground:

• The subject is central, deciding the truth or falsity of statements.
• Both begin with an analysis of knowledge to determine its scope.

However, they diverge significantly. Rationalism places the criterion of truth in the autonomy of reason, constructing knowledge deductively from innate principles, independent of sense experience. Conversely, Empiricism starts with experience and uses induction to reach explanatory hypotheses about phenomena.

Descartes: A Rationalist Landmark

Influence and Platonic Parallels

René Descartes profoundly influenced his era and subsequent philosophy. His work fits within a philosophical lineage, connecting... Continue reading "Rationalism vs. Empiricism: Descartes' Quest for Certainty" »

Human Dignity: A Foundation for Law and Ethics

Kant posited that human dignity is what distinguishes a moral being. Using a human as a means or tool undermines their inherent worth. A person has value, but is priceless and cannot be bought.

The 1948 Declaration of Human Rights states that "freedom, justice, and peace are universally desirable values, which depend on the recognition of the dignity of all."

Human dignity is not a scientific fact but a concept within the vocabulary of ethics. Many philosophers derive human freedom or rights from it, but they are describing reality, not establishing rules. The most justifiable approach is to assert, as a constitutional fact, the dignity of every human being and act accordingly.

The Crisis of Morality

When... Continue reading "Human Dignity: Foundations, Crisis, and Moral Philosophy" »

Metaphysics and Scientific Knowledge: Kant's Perspective

Understanding Metaphysics

To address the proposed topic, we will first explain the concept of metaphysics and all that it encompasses. Then, we will discuss scientific knowledge and its development. Finally, a complete analysis will be made, linking the two concepts and outlining the response Kant gives to metaphysics.

Metaphysics is defined as the attempt to establish, rationally and conceptually, the essences of what exists, but beyond the experience captured by the senses. That is, the human mind begins reasoning and ideally reaches a "response." A response related to reality, but whose production has fallen off of it. In this way, it is close to the spirit of the rationalists, and its... Continue reading "Metaphysics vs. Scientific Knowledge: Kant's Perspective" »

Characteristics of Human Rights

Human rights are the most basic moral requirements that must be met to show due respect for the dignity of persons. If not met, a just society cannot be built.

• Universal: Recognizing all human beings without excluding anyone. Every human being must be treated as an equal.
• Preferred: Human rights take precedence and should be protected as a priority, such as the right to life and health.
• Inalienable: You cannot lose them; they do not expire or prescribe. They are valid for everyone at all times. For example, freedom of expression must be matched with the right to privacy and reputation.
• Non-transferable: They cannot be assigned or transferred to others, such as the right to vote.
• Indivisible, interdependent, non-negotiable:

Ptolemaic, Newtonian, and Quantum Models

The Ptolemaic Model

Considering the nature of mathematics, where experience will be the starting point for establishing general laws, the Ptolemaic Cosmovision model was imposed by Ptolemy. Both defended the Aristotelian geocentric consideration, but the Ptolemaic era was considered more precise and complex, and therefore synonymous with perfection and divine power in the Middle Ages.

The Newtonian Model (19th Century)

The Newtonian Model is characterized by:

• It sees nature as an autonomous reality that must be considered with operational intent, not contemplative.
• It encourages reflection on the scientific method (observation, applying mathematics, experimentation).
• A new way of seeing the world to try to

Understanding Positivism

Positivism emerged in France in the first half of the nineteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the second half. Some concepts of positivist philosophers date back to David Hume, Kant, and Saint-Simon. It integrates different cultural traditions: in France, it aligns with the rationalism that runs from Descartes to the Enlightenment; in England, it develops on empiricist and utilitarian traditions and relates to Darwinian evolution; in Germany, it takes the form of a rigid scientism; and in Italy, its roots go back to Renaissance naturalism. Significant representatives include Comte in France, John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer in England, Jakob Moleschott and Ernst Haeckel in Germany, and Roberto Ardigò... Continue reading "Understanding Positivism: Origins, Stages, and Impact" »

Immanuel Kant's *Perpetual Peace*: A Philosophical Sketch

First Definitive Article for Perpetual Peace

This passage analyzes the first definitive article of *Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch*, written by the philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1795. The publication of this short treatise on political philosophy was inspired by a treaty of perpetual peace signed around that time.

Kant's Critical Metaphysics

Kant rejects all dogmatic metaphysics and instead proposes a critical metaphysics. This critical metaphysics must be limited to investigating the system of *a priori* forms of experience, whether of nature or of customs. The method used to discover these forms is called the transcendental method. Starting from a given experience, this method... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Perpetual Peace: Republican Constitution" »

Religious Beliefs as a Basis of Human Rights

From this perspective, human rights can be understood as a new way to express the idea that everyone is our neighbor and we should treat each other like brothers because we are all children of God.

Human Nature in Common

Many philosophers throughout history have held the idea that all humans share a common nature, are of the same species, and we have basically the same needs, fears, and aspirations to happiness. Human rights are one more discovery in the process of adaptation and survival of the species (either we fulfill human rights with each other or we risk disappearing).

Communicative Rationality and Mutual Recognition

Other philosophers say we can find a basis for human rights in our capacity to... Continue reading "Foundations of Human Rights: Religious Beliefs, Nature, and Rationality" »