Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Kantian Ethics

Moral Ideals

Moral ideals address the question: What should I do? Morality offers guidance to achieve the ideal of happiness. However, defining happiness and identifying what truly brings us happiness remains a challenge.

Material Ethics

All material ethics share the acceptance of a supreme good that guides human behavior and moral norms.

Material ethics are heteronomous, meaning they are derived from external sources outside of rationality. They are based on the feeling of satisfaction derived from external objects beyond our control (the will is not autonomous).

Therefore, the mandates of material ethics are hypothetical: not valid in themselves, but dependent on achieving the desired goal.

Material ethics cannot formulate universal... Continue reading "Kantian Ethics: Moral Ideals and Duty" »

Foundations of Society and Cultural Dynamics

Individual

Any being that belongs to a species, whether animal or vegetable.

Human Beings and Sociality

Humans are social by nature, requiring society and culture to align with their peculiar skills. (Referenced by Hobbes and Rousseau).

Cultural Anthropology

The study of the lifestyles of different human groups and the developments they experience.

State Conditions and Socialization

Key characteristics defining a state include:

• Centralization of power
• Social stratification
• Division of duties
• Unequal distribution of wealth
• Urban development
• Notable cultural growth

The study of these conditions aims to better understand how the human species develops social configurations and different models of society, as individuals... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, Logic, and Social Theory" »

Cogito, Ergo Sum: The First Certainty

"I think, therefore I am." With this famous phrase, Cogito, ergo sum, one of the most renowned in the history of philosophy, Descartes fundamentally asserts two things. First, it is the first truly indubitable and certain truth. After applying his method of doubt and setting aside the entire edifice of knowledge, Descartes realized that the thinking subject, even if mistaken in their thoughts, must necessarily exist in order to think. This truth, "I think, therefore I am," is so firm and certain that it cannot be doubted. Secondly, this phrase implies that a human is essentially a substance whose nature is to think; for Descartes, being and thinking are identical.

After attempting to doubt everything to find... Continue reading "Descartes' Cogito Ergo Sum and the Problem of Solipsism" »

Descartes' Method (Meditations)

Introduction

Descartes sought a reliable method for attaining true scientific knowledge. He aimed to establish a foundation for reasoning and certainty.

Depth

The method needed to be simple, error-proof, and conducive to expanding knowledge. However, relying solely on the senses proved insufficient for acquiring genuine knowledge. Descartes' method analyzes ideas rationally, prioritizing the reliability of innate ideas over sensory experience. Inspired by mathematics, it involves four key rules:

1. Accept only clear and distinct ideas as true, grasped through intuition (immediate knowledge).
2. Analyze complex ideas by breaking them down into simpler, clear, and distinct components.
3. Reconstruct the analyzed idea through

Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Introduction

This text will discuss a fragment from the introduction to Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Before analyzing the text, it's necessary to briefly introduce the ideas and present the central problem.

Kant's Requirements for Scientific Propositions

According to Kant, a proposition must possess universal, necessary, and real character to be considered scientific. This corresponds to knowledge-dogmatic assertions. Empiricism posits that the form and content of ideas are contributions of the object. Critics of this theory of knowledge raised concerns about the validity of science, questioning whether an idea is true when based solely on sense perception.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

Rationalist theory... Continue reading "Kant's Critique: Synthetic A Priori Judgments Explained" »

The Transcendental Aesthetic

The transcendental aesthetic is sensitive transcendental criticism. Kant calls this part of his work aesthetic (from the Greek sense), which concludes that space and time are a priori conditions of objectivity. Space is a pure a priori intuition; intuitive knowledge is not a concept because the concept applies to any number of things, and intuition is a direct uptake of individuality.

Nothing can be knowledge unless certain conditions are met by the knower. The subject acts on something, and it becomes like an object of knowledge. What the subject does to something that becomes an object of knowledge are the transcendental conditions of objectivity, which Kant called a priori forms.

Time as A Priori Sensibility

Kant... Continue reading "Understanding Kant's Transcendental Aesthetic and Dialectic" »

Ethical Criteria of Truth: Evidence and Errors

Evidence is the ultimate criterion of truth, but how do we measure the strength of evidence? Ethics is the most terrible and most glorious aspect of being human. The pattern of life, truth, and values, namely the need to distinguish truth from falsehood to avoid tragedy. Values are at stake as fundamental as peace, freedom, equality, and justice. This is very serious. Some say we cannot agree upon the formulation of ethical principles valid for humanity. Although in some cases there are violent disputes, often there is no disagreement on the fundamentals, but on how to accept or interpret the accepted principles. All these problems that ethics will have to resolve, but should not hide the fact that... Continue reading "Ethical Criteria of Truth: Evidence, Values, and Universal Principles" »

Nihilism and the Path to the Übermensch

Nihilism is a critical movement in the history of Western culture. The Western spirit, burdened by high, inadequate, and fictitious values, succumbs to nihilism—i.e., losing faith in these foundational values. When this occurs, culture remains nonsensical, as nihilism acts as a destructive force against the basis of Western civilization: God, the monotheistic God. This God dies, whom we have collectively killed.

Overcoming Nihilism: The Will to Power

When we realize this death, we can overcome the nihilistic state by constructing a new table of values leading to the Übermensch (Superman). Nietzsche’s active nihilism is a violent, destructive power that stems from a growing spiritual strength. The desire... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Übermensch: Active Nihilism and the Three Transformations" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Mind and Reality

Physicalist Reductionism or Identity Theory considers that mental states are neurophysiological states.

Functionalism: Mental processes are not reduced to neurophysiological processes. Instead, a phenomenon is defined by the function it performs or the outcome it leads to.

Property Dualism: This perspective posits the existence of two types of properties (mental and physical). It contrasts with Monism, which considers that humans are formed by a single substance or reality.

Personalism: Claims the unity of the human being as both body and spirit.

Understanding Human Behavior

Defining Behavior

Behavior is the observable way individuals react to reality.

Types of Reactions

• Instinctive Reaction: An identical

Historical Context: The 19th Century Crisis of Reason

The nineteenth century was an extremely agitated period, often called the "century of revolutions." It followed the pivotal French Revolution of 1789, which toppled the old regime and sparked profound economic and social change across Europe. During this time, science experienced a period of euphoria, seen as a tool capable of satisfying all human needs. However, from 1870, faith in reason and progress began to crumble. Political instability also heralded the beginning of an economic crisis that would arrive at the end of the century.

In philosophy, the most influential system was Hegelianism, which proposed a new concept of reason distinct from that of the Enlightenment. In summary, Nietzsche'... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Life, Art, and the Crisis of Reason" »