Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Absolute

Absolute, as traditionally understood in philosophy, is that which exists by itself and does not need or depend on anything else. When referring to truth, it means complete and total truth.

Abstract and Abstraction

Abstract, etymologically, means to extract or to get something from something else. More rigorously, abstraction means the process by which the understanding obtains (extracts) the universal concept from the sensory image, which is particular and specific. The concept of 'home' is universal because it applies to all objects called "home," which share common characteristics. The image of a "home" is unique because it refers only to a specific house.

For Ortega, the "I" is a concrete reality, mobile and plural. All knowledge that... Continue reading "Key Philosophical Concepts: Absolute to Culture" »

Definitions

Universe

All that exists, apart from which there is nothing.

Scientific Paradigm

A model of the scientific worldview that predominates in each historical stage.

Nature

The set of realities that form the entire universe, excluding anything artificially produced by humans.

Principle

The start, beginning, or cause from which something originates.

Hypothesis

A supposition or tentative scientific explanation proposed to interpret or provide solutions to certain facts.

Postulate

An unprovable proposition whose truth is accepted provisionally as a starting point for studying a problem when an absolutely true starting point cannot be found.

Define

Determining what something is by extracting the common characteristics of all individuals within the same... Continue reading "Exploring Key Concepts: Universe, Nature, and Reality" »

The central theme of this text is the path of knowledge that Plato calls "dialectic," as described in the allegory of the cave. This allegory presents humans chained inside a cave, confused in a world of appearances and shadows, with their ignorance interpreted as true reality. However, humans are called out of the cave into the light to know the real world, free from the shackles of prejudice and ignorance. To achieve this, the human soul possesses the power of intelligence, which allows us to rise on the path of knowledge. This path is difficult because, although the soul aspires to break free of customs, beliefs, and prejudices, at the end of this road, one finds true reality, the idea of goodness, just as the sun illuminates all intellectual... Continue reading "Plato's Cave Allegory: Understanding the Ascent to True Knowledge" »

Aristotle's Logic

3. Logic. Aristotle is credited with creating logic as a tool for scientific inquiry. He demonstrated that in science, problems are resolved by navigating between the singular and the multiple, the universal and the particular.

The syllogism expresses a relationship that illustrates how the universal applies to the particular. For example: "Every man is mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

• Induction (Inverse Process): If we know all particular cases and arrive at a general conclusion, the induction is complete. Example: Men, horses, and mules live long, and they are animals without gallbladders; therefore, animals without gallbladders are long-lived.

We possess scientific knowledge if we know: that something... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics and Logic: Understanding Being" »

Kantian Ethics: What Should I Do?

Kant aimed to create an ethic of universal validity, applicable to all people at all times, and autonomous, independent of external factors like religion. He criticized previous ethical systems as being material and teleological, focused on achieving specific ends like happiness or salvation. Kant proposed a formal ethic, emphasizing the form or mode of action rather than the outcome.

The will, the power of man involved in the action, is central to Kant's ethics. Only the will or intention behind an action can be judged. While only the individual knows their own intention (autonomy), an action done out of duty must be applicable universally. The guiding principle for actions and intentions is the categorical... Continue reading "Kantian Ethics: Duty, Reason, and the Categorical Imperative" »

Right to Justice: All children and adolescents have the right to appear before a competent, independent, and impartial tribunal to defend their rights and interests, with decisions made on their petitions within statutory periods. All adolescents are fully capable of directly and personally exercising this right.

Maternity Protection: The State shall protect maternity. To this effect, it must ensure that all women receive free, high-quality care services and programs during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal phase. Additionally, it should ensure care programs specifically geared toward the guidance and protection of the maternal and filial bond of all adolescent girls and pregnant mothers.

Right to Participation and Freedom of Expression

All... Continue reading "Children's Rights: Justice, Maternity, and Participation" »

Nietzsche's Critique of European Morality

N1 Nietzsche proposes a new perspective against European morality, which he strongly criticizes. He bases this on the denial of instincts and life, stating that Judeo-Christian morality has prevailed throughout the culture for twenty centuries.

In contrast, the philosopher proposes the affirmation of life, with special emphasis on the will to power, to give a yes to eternal life without excluding anything. Therefore, his current is positivism.

However, to reaffirm his vitalism, Nietzsche sharply criticized Christian morality. He does this through the genealogical method, applying the concepts of good and bad, looking for their origins in his work The Genealogy of Morals (1887).

According to the German philosopher,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Morality and Ethical Theories" »

Initial Capital Contribution and Incorporation

Three classmates, having completed their studies in Governing Finance Society, decided to form X Society. The initial capital of X Society was set at €60,000.00, with shares having a nominal value of €10.00 each. On April 1st, the founders contributed €15,000.00 to an account opened on behalf of X Society. The company's incorporation was recorded in the Commercial Register on April 20th.

Initial Accounting Entries (April 1st - April 20th):

• Upon issuance of registration:
  Debit: €60,000 (Account 190)
  Credit: €60,000 (Account 194)
• Accounting for disbursement:
  Debit: €15,000 (Account 566)
  Debit: €45,000 (Account 1034)
  Credit: €60,000 (Account 190)
• Registration in the Commercial Register:

Topic 5: Introduction to Philosophical Empiricism

Empiricism emphasizes the role of sensory experience in acquiring knowledge. It denies the existence of innate ideas, proposing that the mind begins as a "blank slate." This perspective challenges traditional metaphysics, which attempts to transcend the boundaries of experience.

1. Epistemological Foundations

1.1. Elements of Knowledge

According to Locke and Hume, an "idea" represents everything we know or perceive. Hume refined Locke's concept of "idea" to encompass sensations and perceptions. He identified two key elements of knowledge:

• Impressions: These are immediate sensations—our direct experience of the world. They are strong, vivid feelings that form the raw data of our senses.
• Ideas: