Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hume's Emotive Moral Theory

Hume's moral theory is a key part of his plan to build a science of human nature with scientific rigor comparable to that achieved by Newton in the natural sciences. The science of human nature does not end with the explanation of knowledge, but must include a justification of the principles governing human behavior.

Hume's ethical theory is based on the refusal to accept that reason can be the foundation of moral life. Moral rationalism has been the dominant ethical explanation since the beginning of philosophy, with the exception of the moral theory of the Sophists. Hume considers that moral rationalism has made an error, as it confuses the field of theoretical philosophy and practical philosophy by not drawing clear... Continue reading "Hume's Emotivism: The Role of Feelings in Moral Judgments" »

Foundational Questions and Shared Commitments

The theories of knowledge proposed by Plato and Marx represent two distinct yet interconnected approaches to a fundamental question: What is the reality we need to know? Despite radical differences in their philosophical systems, both thinkers shared a profound commitment to transforming the societies in which they lived through philosophy. Just as Plato was a political thinker aiming to reform ancient Athens, Marx was a political thinker seeking to change the social reality of the 19th and 20th centuries through his philosophical insights. However, the distinctions between these two influential authors are profound.

Contrasting Ontologies: Idealism Versus Materialism

A primary divergence lies in their... Continue reading "Plato and Marx: Divergent Paths to Social Transformation" »

State Formation Methods

How does a state begin to exist? States can arise in several ways:

• A colony declares independence from its motherland.
• Two or more states merge to form a new state.
• New states emerge from the dismemberment of an existing state.
• A community establishes a state in a terra nullius (territory belonging to no one).

In each case, a state legally exists when its essential elements are met. The principle of effectiveness prevails in international law. A mere declaration of independence is insufficient; the lack of legitimacy from the former ruling entity does not prevent state formation.

State Extinction

States can cease to exist through:

• Fusion: Two or more states unite to form a new, larger state, losing their original identities.
• Incorporation/

1. How Augustine understands the relationship between faith and reason?
The reason itself is not enough for alkane enough to reach the truth, because by nature is limited, weak and imperfect. Reason must submit to the faith. 2. What makes St. Augustine with Plato's philosophy? Explain. Theory of Knowledge. Adaptation of Plato to Christianity. Man must seek the truth in the outside, because the sensitivity is too unstable. Only in the interiority of the soul will find the sage wisdom. 3. What historical event promotes historical reflection of St. Augustine?
A) The two cities in a work of St. Augustine which was first carried out a philosophy of history. From 410, the pagans to Christianity accused of being responsible for the ruin of the... Continue reading "Medieval philosophy as a confluence of faith and reason" »

Descartes: *Res Cogitans* and Mechanism

The First Principle: *Cogito Ergo Sum*

Applying the first rule of his method—to accept only clear and distinct ideas—Descartes concludes that the first glimmer of truth is "I think." From this, he raises the fundamental question: "What am I?"

Descartes' Conception of Substance

To explain the essence of the self, we must understand these concepts:

• Substance: That which needs nothing else to exist (only applicable absolutely to God).
• Mode: That which needs a substance to exist.
• Attribute: The essential characteristic of a substance.

Descartes distinguishes three types of substances:

1. The self, whose attribute is thinking.
2. God, whose attribute is perfection.
3. The world, whose attribute is extension.

*Res Cogitans*

1. Rights and Duties of Students and Non-Teaching Staff

Education plays a crucial role in transmitting societal values, fostering coexistence, and promoting mutual respect. As stated in Article 1 of Organic Law 1/1990 of October 3, on the General Organization of the Educational System, a primary objective of the educational system is to train individuals in respecting fundamental freedoms and exercising tolerance within a democratic framework.

Achieving this requires not only appropriate educational content but also a conducive learning environment. School regulations should cultivate responsibility, diligence, and effort, enabling students to maximize their learning outcomes and develop positive habits. Students must feel that these standards... Continue reading "Students' Rights & Duties: Fostering Responsible Learning Environments" »

Defining Science

Science is a type of knowledge distinct from ordinary knowledge. Ordinary knowledge often focuses on the result of an event, whereas a scientist questions its cause. Science establishes relationships between concepts and formulates laws, asserting that these relationships occur regularly.

Understanding Knowledge

A person knows an event if and only if:

• The subject believes in that event.
• The subject's belief in the event is rationally justified.
• The event is true.

Scientific Knowledge

The scientific community knows a theory if and only if:

• The scientific community believes in this theory.
• The scientific community's belief in that theory is rational and scientifically justified.

These conditions are also necessary; the scientific community... Continue reading "The Nature of Science: Concepts, Criteria, and Categories" »

Historical Context (16th & 17th Centuries)

The Renaissance marked a return to classical ideals. In contrast, the Baroque period was a time of crisis, particularly for Spain, which lost its hegemony. Several problems arose:

Societal Shifts

After the Renaissance, the economic and cultural center shifted from Italy and Spain to France, Holland, and England. This led to a societal crisis:

• Economic Crisis: Agriculture-based economies suffered from poor harvests and famine.
• Social Hierarchy: Existing class structures began to crumble.
• Political Instability: Wars and revolts were common.

Religious and Intellectual Upheavals

• Religious Conflicts: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation caused tension between Catholics and Protestants.
• Scientific Revolution:

Language

A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or words that enables people to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. It studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

Pragmatics

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used. It studies how context contributes to meaning, considering factors like time, place, and social situation.

Metalinguistics

The study of language and its relationship to other cultural behaviors. It involves using language to talk about language itself.

Thinking

The process of using one's mind to consider or reason about something. It involves forming ideas, mental images, and understanding existence,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Language, Logic, and Reading Comprehension" »

René Descartes: Life and Philosophical Foundations

René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye, Touraine, France. He belonged to a family of minor nobility; his father, Joachim Descartes, served as a Counselor in the Parliament of Brittany. Due to the early death of his mother, Jeanne Brochard, a few months after his birth, Descartes was brought up by his maternal grandmother, with a nurse who remained linked to his life.

His famous work, Discourse on Method (1637), was followed by The Dioptrics, The Meteors, and Geometry, which served as tests of this new method. The success of these works led him to devote himself entirely to philosophy. Descartes, often in poor health and accustomed to staying in bed until midday for his writing,... Continue reading "René Descartes: Life, Metaphysics, and the Mind-Body Problem" »