Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Two Realms of Reality

Sensible World vs. World of Ideas

On the other hand, we find the sensible reality, which is, as stated above, subject to change, mobility, generation, and corruption. Although its degree of reality cannot be compared to that of the Ideas (sensible things are not truly real), it is consistent and cannot be deemed nothing, unlike what Parmenides argued.

Overcoming Relativism and Ignorance

With this theory, the Athenian philosopher was able to overcome the moral relativism of the Sophists (whom, like his teacher Socrates, he sought to prove wrong, arguing that virtue is founded on knowledge, the so-called moral intellectualism). Similarly, the impossibility of scientific knowledge is surpassed. Science cannot be based... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Forms and Knowledge" »

Marx's Theory of Alienation

The Concept of Alienation

Alienation, from the Latin "alienus" (meaning foreign), describes the circumstances of a person who is not in control of themselves, and is not ultimately responsible for their actions or thoughts. This individual's way of being transforms into something alien. Marx inherited this concept from Hegel and Feuerbach, distinguishing several types:

• Economic Alienation: Occurs in paid work. The worker suffers an expropriation of the fruits of their labor, and ultimately, of themself, by the capitalist. The worker becomes a commodity, exchanged for funds necessary for survival.
• Legal-Political Alienation: Occurs when the individual surrenders their freedom to the State, trusting it as a superior institution

Philosophical Conceptions of Humanity

Humans have always pondered their existence, developing explanations of reality through social organization, religion, art, and philosophy. Philosophical anthropology addresses these fundamental questions about human nature.

Autobiographical vs. Systematic Philosophy

Autobiographical philosophy represents individual thinkers' efforts to explore these questions, while systematic philosophy offers universal theories.

Autobiographical Theories on Humans

Religious theories are based on faith and personal experiences, such as the Genesis account of God creating humans in His image. Philosophical theories, on the other hand, rely on reason and claim universal validity.

Key Aspects of Human Existence

• Rational Beings:

David Hume (an 18th-century Scottish philosopher) studied law at Trinity College. He later moved to Paris and met Rousseau.

Hume's text discusses human perceptions. He makes several key points:

1. There are two types of perceptions: impressions and ideas. Impressions are immediate and leave a strong mark.
2. The difference between impressions and ideas lies in their intensity. Impressions are stronger than ideas (ideas are reflections of impressions). This is because impressions are immediate and instant, while ideas are formed later.
3. The difference between an impression and an idea is the same as the difference between feeling and thinking.
4. Another distinction can be made based on complexity: simple and complex perceptions. Simple perceptions are unique,

The Dawn of Athenian Democracy: Historical Context

1. The Humanist Turn

• Historical and Political Factors: Pericles implemented significant political reforms, paving the way for democracy and abolishing the privileges of the old aristocracy and oligarchs. This democratic transformation experienced both its zenith and its decline. Athens faced both internal and external adversaries.
  • External Enemies: Sparta and the Spartan aristocracy, leading to the Peloponnesian War and the eventual defeat of Athens.
  • Internal Enemies: The aristocrats, initially accepting of reforms, but quickly became critical of the new political system, seeking to regain their former power.
• Social and Economic Factors: Greek society transitioned into an urban one, reliant on slave

Rousseau's Stages of Human Evolution

Rousseau proposed two stages in human evolution:

• State of nature: Individuals live happily and freely, isolated within families.
• State of civilization (social): Humans become evil, selfish, vain, and superficial.

Hobbes' View on Human Nature

Hobbes believed that humans are sociable by nature, a concept opposite to Rousseau's. Human nature is driven by the desire for power, fame, and selfishness.

Hobbes advocated for the necessity of state and society to ensure individual safety.

Kant's Perspective

Kant represents the pinnacle of modern thought. Influenced by Rousseau, he affirmed the dignity and rights of human beings.

Kant believed in two opposing dimensions: natural and rational, with the latter dominating the... Continue reading "Human Nature: Rousseau, Hobbes, Kant, Freud & Marx" »

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche: Life and Philosophy

Born on October 15, 1844, in Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche passed away in August 1900. In philosophical manuals, he is recognized for introducing a concept he termed vitalism (philosophy of life). His unique character significantly influenced the history of philosophy.

Following the death of his father, Nietzsche grew up in a predominantly feminine environment. At age 14, he began studying classical philology, and by 25, he was already a Professor of Philosophy at the University of Basel. An accident during his time in the army left him with chronic migraines for the rest of his life.

Nietzsche's Philosophy: The Noon of Zarathustra

His seminal work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, is presented as... Continue reading "Friedrich Nietzsche's Core Philosophy: Superman, Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence" »

Political Theory of the Modern State

Medieval political thought was modernized and adapted to the new scenario. The political theory of the modern state does not ignore the moral and theological components characteristic of the Middle Ages.

Machiavelli's work on ethical considerations about such things as legitimate power and good governance gives way to the stark description of the mechanisms of politics. We found two different perspectives: one ethical, centered on the origin, nature, and limits of political power; the other, more empirical, descriptive, and innovative, focused on what is portrayed and how it works.

Legitimate and Sovereign Power

The theory of power in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is very rich. This results in the... Continue reading "Modern State Political Theory: Power and Legitimacy" »

Comparison of Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset

If we compare Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset, the context is crucial, as they belong to the same period:

• Ortega would agree with Nietzsche that life is the central concept upon which all philosophical reflection is based. The fundamental reality is life; the reality of every individual is their life.
• However, Ortega believed that explaining life as a mere "will to power" is a reductionism that excludes much of what constitutes human life, such as history, projects, desires, and so on.

Comparison of Descartes and Ortega y Gasset

If we compare Descartes and Ortega y Gasset, we can highlight the following:

• Ortega criticizes Descartes for attempting to reduce reason to mathematics, which prevents it from providing