Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' Arguments for God's Existence

The Causal Argument for God's Existence

This argument rests on two foundational principles:

1. The theory of the objective reality of ideas, which refers to their representative content.
2. The principle that "nothing comes from nothing," asserting that everything has a cause and a consequence.

The objective reality of an idea must have a real cause proportional to that idea. The idea of an infinite being cannot be caused by a finite being; therefore, its existence is inferred.

God as the Cause of My Being

This argument, also rooted in the theory of objective and formal ideas, posits the following: Within my mind, there exists an idea of perfection. If I were the cause of the objective reality of this idea of perfection,... Continue reading "Descartes' Proofs for God's Existence and Divine Truth" »

Saint Thomas Aquinas indicates the main ideas of the argument showing the need for salvation theology. God, so that man goes and therefore should know, cannot be understood only by reason. In addition, disclosure is needed. Only with the right, the truth of God would be known by very few and with many errors. Instead, disclosure provides knowledge that is always true. In addition to philosophy, the science of reason, sacred doctrine or theology is needed, the science of revelation. Explain: According to Thomas Aquinas, so we can be saved, human reason and philosophy are not enough. Moreover, revelation is essential. Faith and reason are different sources of knowledge. Rational knowledge of sensory experience is limited by what we can deduce... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas on Salvation: Faith and Reason" »

Contractarian Theories: A Comparison

Classic contractarian theories share these elements:

1. The state of nature is the starting point: Imagine humanity without political organization.
2. The social contract is a necessary artifice: Ideal situations are unattainable, so civil society must be built from an artificial contract between individuals.
3. The political system is founded on the legitimacy of the contract: The rules of the social contract shape the resulting state.

Hobbes: The Contract of Submission

1. In the natural state, humans tend to satisfy their own desires, using reason to achieve their ends. This leads to a state of war of all against all, which is unsustainable.
2. The contract obliges individuals (now subjects) to give all freedoms to a sovereign

Aristotle's First Philosophy

The Study of Being

According to Aristotle's Metaphysics, all entities share something in common: being. Aristotle seeks knowledge that investigates ideas and principles valid for all types of entities, which he calls 'first philosophy'. The principles of being are present in all types of entities. These principles are not something sensible but are understood by precise reason.

Substance in Metaphysics

Defining Substance

The principle of substance is that which underlies an entity, ensuring it remains that specific being. Substance is always individual and not transferable. Substance is being, vital and fundamental. All that can be said of any entity must relate to its substance.

Types of Substance

Aristotle distinguishes... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics: Being, Substance, Causes" »

Mill's Utilitarianism: A Critical Analysis

Instead, I think J. Stuart Mill could not cope with these other considerations:

1. Holding a conception of human nature – to argue that individuals properly educated generally desire happiness – and the historical process – which he said must lead, by the constant progress of the human spirit, the moral development of individuals – that transcends the empirical – not all individuals developed morally, at least in appearance, seeking to conform their conduct to the moral criterion of general happiness and although there are individuals who, in truth, to present the moral, like him, yes they do, we can not make it a general rule – and condemns his moral criterion for the overall utility or happiness

Theme 2: Science and Other Forms of Human Knowledge

1. Science

One characteristic that distinguishes humans from other living beings is our natural curiosity to wonder about the world in which we live and about our human nature.

To satisfy this curiosity, there have been ways of knowing, understanding, explaining, and interpreting the world and human existence. One way is through philosophy.

Another is through science, which seeks to know reality, find the causes of observed phenomena, establish universally valid concepts, and demonstrate rational arguments. Science provides knowledge about the universe.

1.1 The Scientific Explanation: A Brief History

Science has not always been the same. There have been three main models of scientific paradigms:... Continue reading "Science and Human Knowledge: From Ancient Greece to the Renaissance" »

This document explores the intricate relationship between ethics and politics through the lens of prominent modern philosophers: Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, and Immanuel Kant. Their theories offer profound insights into the justification of state power, the origin of morality, and the role of the individual within the political framework.

Thomas Hobbes: The Justification of Absolute Power

Thomas Hobbes's justification in Leviathan has not only political but also moral components. Morality is generated by the same covenant that forms the basis for political power. Absolute political power and morality are designed to serve the individual. The state is conceived as a separate individual, and the sovereign state emerges as the sole source of... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of Ethics and State Power" »

**Editorial: Rousseau, Thinker of Dualities**

Rousseau's dualities reflected the classic *matter-spirit*, *reason-senses*, *understanding-sensitivity*, virtually all philosophical, except materialism.

• This *body-soul* duality is at the base of another: *reason-feelings*. The reason as understood by Rousseau no longer has the Cartesian cold lead to a method for attaining truth. Now, that same reason converted into practice, is a man as a moral compass to be followed by a boost of awareness that is feeling. (...)
• Viewing intelligence and the senses as *active* and *passive* is another duality that serves Rousseau to accuse the first of certain errors when judging what the senses have glimpsed. Unlike Plato and Descartes, the senses are not wrong

1. The Epicurean Calculation of Pleasure and Pain

Epicureanism suggests that pleasure is the ultimate good and pain is evil. However, it emphasizes the importance of calculating pleasures and pains, choosing long-term pleasure over immediate gratification. This involves considering the potential consequences of actions. For example, a student facing an exam might choose to forgo weekend partying (avoiding short-term pleasure) to study and achieve the greater pleasure of a good grade. Similarly, enduring the short-term pain of a dental visit prevents the long-term pain of a lost tooth.

2. Self-Sufficiency as a Great Good in Epicureanism

Self-sufficiency, in Epicureanism, means minimizing dependence on external goods or people for happiness. It... Continue reading "Exploring Key Ethical Theories: Epicureanism, Utilitarianism, and Kantianism" »