Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Allegory of the Cave: A Philosophical Journey

Plato's Allegory of the Cave is arguably his most famous philosophical concept. It explains his Theory of Ideas, his epistemological theory (theory of knowledge), and his anthropological theory (theory of human nature).

The story places us in a cave where prisoners have been forced to look at shadows cast by a fire and moving objects throughout their lives. In this first metaphor, the author identifies the prisoners chained to the human soul, which is tied to an earthly body and belongs to the world of things. This world is imperfect and sensitive, and its characteristics are mere shadows of reality.

In the myth, Plato wonders what would happen if one of the prisoners were to stand and see

Human Action

Human action is a conscious and voluntary act caused by human behavior, resulting in a specific event. It must be personal, intentional, and conscious. Human actions have several key elements:

• Intention: The conscious trends and acceptance by the subject that initiate an action. Intentions are mental and can only be inferred by others.
• Purpose: The aim that the subject consciously and explicitly tries to achieve through the action.
• Motivation: The combination of intention and purpose that drives the action. Motivation is the effect of the action.
• Consequences: The events or states caused by the action. Consequences depend on the resources used and the knowledge possessed. Unintended consequences are common and raise the issue of the

Classifying nouns according to their meaning is complex, as it involves establishing an order for the realities or beings they designate. However, understanding the traditional classification is essential, as it is the most common:

Common Nouns vs. Proper Nouns

Common nouns designate all members of the same class (e.g., pine, balcony). Proper nouns identify or individualize a being distinct from others of the same class. Proper nouns for people are called anthroponyms (e.g., Gabriela, Eduardo), while those for places are called toponyms (e.g., Madrid, Júcar).

Proper nouns, used to designate individual beings, often accept the plural form. They typically reject the article, except in specific cases:

1. When the proper noun is specified:

• You are advised

Understanding Your Vocation

Your destination is an imperious tendency toward a particular way of life for the realization of your potential. Vocation is a force that operates both inside the individual, pushing them to act in pursuit of their life project, and outside, where the needs of society provide a real and concrete framework for its expression.

It is the inner force that drives and energizes a person to be held in society. This force is a double called Vocation: EXTERIOR (requirement of the company) and INTERNAL (internal needs).

Justice as the State's Purpose: Plato

Some thinkers believe the State's main function is to ensure justice, a view held by Plato. However, discrepancies arise when defining justice.

Justice: A Virtue of the Soul

Plato believed humans are composed of body and soul. The soul has three parts:

• Rational (knowledge)
• Volitional (ambition and will)
• Appetitive (desires)

Each part has a specific virtue:

• Rational: Wisdom/Prudence
• Volitional: Strength/Courage
• Appetitive: Temperance

According to Plato, justice exists when each part of the soul fulfills its respective virtue.

Justice and Social Order in Plato's Republic

Plato's Republic describes a just state analogous to the human soul, with three classes:

• Philosopher-Rulers (wisdom)
• Guardians/Warriors (courage)
• Producers

Augustine's Inner Search

Augustine is a major figure in Christian philosophy. He believed that God is the source of all reality, truth, and goodness. For Augustine, the search for God begins with self-examination. He believed that God knows us from within, and the soul, as an image of God, is the starting point for this quest. Augustine rejected the Platonic idea of finding truth in the external world, instead advocating for an inner quest to analyze the contents of consciousness.

Faith and Reason in Augustine's Thought

Some Christian philosophers believed that faith lies beyond human capabilities and rejected reason's interference. Augustine, however, saw faith and reason as complementary. He believed that God gave us reason and that religion... Continue reading "Augustine's Philosophy: Faith, Reason, and Divine Illumination" »

A Century of Crisis

René Descartes (1596-1650) developed his philosophy during the 17th century, a period marked by political and religious upheaval. This crisis led to a loss of established foundations, resulting in doubt and a search for new certainties.

Key Characteristics of the 17th Century

• Absolutism: The absolute authority of the monarch, mirroring Descartes' aim to establish absolute knowledge.
• Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church's efforts to maintain Christian unity through the Inquisition, leading to religious wars like the Thirty Years' War (in which Descartes participated).
• Baroque: An artistic movement expressing transience, pessimism, and disorder, exemplified by figures like Molière, Calderón de la Barca, Cervantes, Velázquez,

Positivism vs. Habermas
Auguste Comte:
Born in Montpellier, France, January 19, 1789; died in Paris, September 5, 1857. He is considered the founder of positivism and the discipline of sociology. He early rejected traditional Catholic and monarchical doctrines. In 1848, he founded a Positivist Society.
Jürgen Habermas:
Born in Dusseldorf, Germany in 1929. He studied at the Frankfurt School and became a leading representative of Critical Theory.
Positivism:
Positivism, a philosophical trend since the 19th century, greatly influenced politics and knowledge. It asserts that only scientific knowledge, achieved through the scientific method, is authentic. Positivism is characterized by being useful, true, accurate, and constructive, without accepting... Continue reading "Positivism vs. Habermas: A Comparative Analysis" »

Empirical Standpoint: The Superiority of Sensory Experience

At an epistemological level, Nietzsche adopts an empirical standpoint, establishing the superiority of sensory experience over reason. The senses show us the real world; they are sharp observation instruments that reveal minor differences. In contrast, reason falsifies the testimony of the senses, creating an apparent world and misleading us.

Anthropological Level: A Vital Perspective Against Dualism

At an anthropological level, from a vital perspective, Nietzsche criticizes the dualism of the ailing Western metaphysical tradition. He claims the health of the body as a vital force to impose its reality. Platonic dualism is rejected for sentencing the soul to the prison of the body. Similarly,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics: Embracing Sensory Experience" »