Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Material and Formal Ethics

In the realm of media, material ethics considers actions as good or bad depending on the aim pursued. Immanuel Kant rejects this view because:

• Its imperatives are not universal.
• They are hypothetical, holding value only if we accept the good they seek as inherently good.
• They are heteronomous, meaning that humans determine what is good or bad.

In contrast, formal ethics views behaviors as inherently good or bad in themselves.

• It does not establish any ultimate good that humans should pursue.
• It merely dictates how we should act to behave morally, not the specific acts themselves.

Thus, moral principles are universal, necessary, and immutable.

Natural Law vs. Positivism

Natural Law is a legal tradition within the philosophy... Continue reading "Material vs. Formal Ethics, Social Origins, and Political Philosophy" »

Expository Text: Definition and Structure

Characteristics of Expository Writing

• The text aims to disclose or explain a particular subject.
• The information provided must be:
  • Clear (*Clara*)
  • Necessary (*Necesaria*)
  • Simple and Rigorous (*Sencilla y Rigurosa*)
• Should follow a logical order, adhering to the standard structure:

• Introduction
  • Development
  • Conclusion
• A specific lexicon related to the subject being discussed must be used.
• In many cases, the text is illustrated with charts, drawings, and diagrams to enhance understanding.
• The established structure must be followed consistently.

Expository Text Preparation

Preparing for an Exposition: Essential Steps

To prepare an expository text, the following steps must be followed:

1. Choose a theme and a suitable title.

Scientific Knowledge: Core Concepts

Scientific knowledge is built upon specific characteristics, a unique language, and rigorous methodologies.

Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge

• Neutrality or Absence of Prejudices: Addressing serious issues without bias.
• Critical Spirit: A continuous questioning and evaluation of findings.
• Intersubjectivity: The demand for shared understanding and verifiable results among different observers.

The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th Centuries)

This period marked science's independence from philosophy. Early modern scientists included Kepler, Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton.

Key Characteristics of the Scientific Revolution:

• Experimentation: Observation plays a crucial role, but not all phenomena are observable

Metaphysics: Ontology and Epistemology

The transition from ontology to epistemology involves two fundamental concepts, two categories that ontology should clarify: real and unreal.

This leads us into the second part of metaphysics, epistemology, also known as the theory of knowledge, which studies the relations between the knower and the known object.

Understanding Reality: Real vs. Unreal

Real is that which exists independently of what someone is experiencing or knowing. What exists can impose limitations. Physical phenomena are considered real.

Conscious phenomena, for example, are not real in the same sense as a physical body. They exist only while one is consciously aware of them. Appearance introduces a new form of reality. It seems that, compared... Continue reading "Metaphysics: Ontology, Epistemology, and the Concept of God" »

Branches of Philosophy: Metaphysics, Gnoseology, Logic, Ethics, and Aesthetics.
What is Science? Science is the body of knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning, systematically structured and deduced from general principles and laws.
Three Philosophical Currents:
Epistemology: This branch of philosophy studies the nature, source, and scope of knowledge.
Anthropology: The social science that studies human beings in a holistic way.
Epistemology: A branch of philosophy whose object of study is scientific knowledge.
What is Empiricism? Empiricism is a theory of cognition that emphasizes the role of experience, linked to sensory perception in the formation of concepts. Knowledge finds its validity in relation to experience.
Difference Between

What Are Incoterms and When Are They Used?

Incoterms are defined and developed by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), with the aim of establishing a standardized language that can be used by buyers and sellers involved in international business.

Key Incoterms Explained

EXW - Ex Works

The seller's only responsibility is to make the goods available to the buyer at the seller's premises (factory, warehouse, etc.). The buyer bears all costs and risks from that point.

FCA - Free Carrier

The seller must deliver the goods, cleared for export, to the carrier or another person nominated by the buyer at the named place. The seller loads the goods if delivery occurs at the seller's premises.

FAS - Free Alongside Ship

The seller is responsible for placing

Collectivism: Defining the Social Machinery

Collectivism is a concept in which the individual is merely one piece of the social machinery. Its primary intent is to ensure the vitality and continuity of the whole group. Therefore, the individual is only relevant in relation to the operation of the social machinery, possessing no inherent value, and is considered perfectly interchangeable and replaceable. This philosophy tends to promote forms of social organization and management aimed at seeking the common good.

Totalitarianism and Individual Freedom

Totalitarianism refers to dictatorships of the State, where the interests of the State are paramount. This system is usually synonymous with a lack of individual freedoms, as those freedoms can threaten... Continue reading "Defining Core Concepts: Individualism, Collectivism, and Social Structure" »

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

This text delves into the philosophy of René Descartes, a prominent figure born in 1596 in Touraine, France, who passed away in 1650 in Sweden. He is recognized as one of the leading representatives of Modern Philosophy and is widely considered the father of Rationalism. His most important work, Discourse on Method, outlines the necessity for a new philosophical method, fundamentally based on mathematical deduction. Other significant works include Meditations on First Philosophy (often referred to as Metaphysical Meditations), Treatise on the World, Principles of Philosophy, and Rules for the Direction of the Mind. Descartes's thought emerged as a significant outcome of the Humanist and Scientistic movements. He became the chief representative... Continue reading "René Descartes: Architect of Modern Rationalism" »

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »