Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes: *Res Cogitans* and Mechanism

The First Principle: *Cogito Ergo Sum*

Applying the first rule of his method—to accept only clear and distinct ideas—Descartes concludes that the first glimmer of truth is "I think." From this, he raises the fundamental question: "What am I?"

Descartes' Conception of Substance

To explain the essence of the self, we must understand these concepts:

• Substance: That which needs nothing else to exist (only applicable absolutely to God).
• Mode: That which needs a substance to exist.
• Attribute: The essential characteristic of a substance.

Descartes distinguishes three types of substances:

1. The self, whose attribute is thinking.
2. God, whose attribute is perfection.
3. The world, whose attribute is extension.

*Res Cogitans*

1. Rights and Duties of Students and Non-Teaching Staff

Education plays a crucial role in transmitting societal values, fostering coexistence, and promoting mutual respect. As stated in Article 1 of Organic Law 1/1990 of October 3, on the General Organization of the Educational System, a primary objective of the educational system is to train individuals in respecting fundamental freedoms and exercising tolerance within a democratic framework.

Achieving this requires not only appropriate educational content but also a conducive learning environment. School regulations should cultivate responsibility, diligence, and effort, enabling students to maximize their learning outcomes and develop positive habits. Students must feel that these standards... Continue reading "Students' Rights & Duties: Fostering Responsible Learning Environments" »

Historical Context (16th & 17th Centuries)

The Renaissance marked a return to classical ideals. In contrast, the Baroque period was a time of crisis, particularly for Spain, which lost its hegemony. Several problems arose:

Societal Shifts

After the Renaissance, the economic and cultural center shifted from Italy and Spain to France, Holland, and England. This led to a societal crisis:

• Economic Crisis: Agriculture-based economies suffered from poor harvests and famine.
• Social Hierarchy: Existing class structures began to crumble.
• Political Instability: Wars and revolts were common.

Religious and Intellectual Upheavals

• Religious Conflicts: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation caused tension between Catholics and Protestants.
• Scientific Revolution:

Language

A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or words that enables people to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. It studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

Pragmatics

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used. It studies how context contributes to meaning, considering factors like time, place, and social situation.

Metalinguistics

The study of language and its relationship to other cultural behaviors. It involves using language to talk about language itself.

Thinking

The process of using one's mind to consider or reason about something. It involves forming ideas, mental images, and understanding existence,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Language, Logic, and Reading Comprehension" »

Nietzsche's Philosophy: Vitalism and the Death of God

Understanding Nietzsche's Core Concepts

Nietzsche's thinking arose from the need to understand life as a vital impulse, and man in the biological and geophysical sense as being vital. It is, therefore, a thought that is part of vitalism and the philosophy of suspicion. It calls into question the values of his time. In particular, his thinking is considered an irrational vitalism because he believes that nature is not governed by rational principles. We also have to understand his philosophy from what it is: a philosophy of the thinking artist.

Nihilism: Negative and Positive Aspects

His thought consists of two phases, marked by the two sides of his nihilism: a negative side, criticism of the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Vitalism, Nihilism, and the Superman" »

Science

Science: Knowledge is systematic, rigorous, and objective. It consists of a set of descriptions, explanations, theories, and laws on the nature of things. It is based on observable data. It is a knowledge that is mathematicized, quantified, and subject to experimental verification. It is not evaluative knowledge.

Philosophy

Philosophy: Knowledge is systematic, rigorous, objective, and rational. It tries to understand things beyond the observable and measurable, but without falling into myth, belief, or unsupported speculation. It is specifically rational knowledge. It is justified rationally. It addresses human and social issues. Philosophy, unlike science, is valuable and not only explanatory.

Religion

Religion: It is a type of explanation... Continue reading "Understanding Human Behavior: Science, Philosophy, Ethics, and Morality" »

Descartes: Historical, Cultural, and Philosophical Context

René Descartes (1596-1650) was born in La Haye, France. In 1616, he obtained a degree in Law from Poitiers. However, Descartes was disappointed with his education, a sentiment he would later express in *Discourse on Method*. He found scholastic philosophy unsatisfying, although much of the terminology he later used was taken from it. Descartes found satisfaction only in mathematics. Consequently, he made the decision to "completely abandon the study of literature and, determined not to seek another science than that which I could find in myself or in the great book of the world, I spent the rest of my youth traveling, seeing courts and armies, treating people of different moods and... Continue reading "Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Historical Context" »

Analysis of a Journalistic Opinion Piece

Textual Characteristics

This journalistic opinion piece, extracted from a newspaper, explores the subject of ... . The author's primary aim is to present their perspective and persuade the reader of its validity. The text blends expository and argumentative writing styles, explaining events while advocating for a specific viewpoint.

Structure

The text follows a traditional three-part structure:

• Introduction: ...
• Development: ...
• Conclusion: ...

Main Ideas

The central arguments presented are:

• ...
• ...

Further details and explanations complement these core ideas.

Author's Thesis

The author's main contention is that ............................. This thesis is strategically positioned within the text to ... .

Language

Reason and Faith in Aquinas

B: Since Thomas was convinced that faith and reason are harmonized and complementary, he argued that some truths of faith are accessible to reason. For example, we can come to the knowledge of God using only the light of reason. This aligns with what Thomas termed "rational or natural theology." He first proposed a question, then provided opposing arguments. Next, Thomas presented his argument, serving as his defense. In the body of the article, he offers his solution, in this case, the five ways. Finally, he concludes by responding to the opposing arguments. Thomas solved the problem of the relationship between reason and faith, stating that there are two kinds of theology: natural and supernatural. Natural theology... Continue reading "Five Rational Proofs for God's Existence" »

Features of Civil Society

Civil society designates the mode of organization and structure of society at a particular time of development, existing between the family and the state, within which social groups are displayed.

Marx and Hegel:

Represents the space for expression and the satisfaction of the needs of individuals.

Material covers the exchange of individuals, encompassing all commercial and industrial life.

Its organization is based on production and exchange.

Forms the basis of the state.

This is engineered and regulated by legislation, providing for social rights and civic duties.

Social Contract: Rousseau

Rousseau criticizes previous theories:

Hobbes believes that their form of contract, the contract of submission, denies the natural freedom... Continue reading "Civil Society: Theories, Contracts, and Assumptions" »