Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hume's Philosophy of Causality

Hume's Critique of Causal Knowledge

The existence of causal knowledge, according to Hume, is not a relation of ideas. The mind can never find the effect in the supposed cause by the most rigorous examination, because the effect is distinct from the cause and consequently cannot be discovered within it.

Causal knowledge is not a demonstrative knowledge obtained through reason, as its opposite does not imply a contradiction or logical absurdity.

Empirical Basis of Causal Belief

The belief in the existence of causal relationships arises from experience, specifically from observing the spatiotemporal contiguity and constant conjunction of two facts. For instance, Adam, without prior experience, would never have known that... Continue reading "Hume's Philosophy of Causality and Empirical Knowledge" »

Plato's Life and Political Context (427-347 BC)

Plato (427-347 BC) was born into an aristocratic family and was initially interested in politics. His philosophical development was significantly influenced by the political turmoil of his time.

The Rise and Fall of Athenian Democracy

After periods of aristocracy and attempts at reform, followed by tyranny, democracy emerged in Athens. This democracy began with the reforms of Cleisthenes, which included:

• Isonomy: All men are equal before the law.
• Isegoria: All men are entitled to speak in the Assembly.
• Ostracism: Exile by vote for any citizen who might become a tyrant.

The Persian Wars and the Golden Age of Pericles

The Medical Wars, where the Greeks faced the Persians, were a pivotal moment. The Greek... Continue reading "Plato: Life, Philosophy, and Influence on Athenian Politics" »

Conflict: It is a clash of positions arising among several people or groups of people because of some behavior damaging the achievement of the objectives of another.

Types of Disputes

People Involved

1) Group (Collective):

• It occurs among workers in a company, taken together, and the company as such.
• The goal of conflict is often a general discrepancy in working conditions.
• Its solution globally affects all involved.

2) Individual:

• Occurs between a boss and a subordinate.
• The goal is usually a claim of a personal/family nature.
• The solution only affects the worker and the employer.
• Can occur between two persons of the same hierarchical level.

Features of Interest

• Standards: It is produced by different interpretations of labor standards.
• Economic: The economic

Kantian Ethics

Moral Ideals

Moral ideals address the question: What should I do? Morality offers guidance to achieve the ideal of happiness. However, defining happiness and identifying what truly brings us happiness remains a challenge.

Material Ethics

All material ethics share the acceptance of a supreme good that guides human behavior and moral norms.

Material ethics are heteronomous, meaning they are derived from external sources outside of rationality. They are based on the feeling of satisfaction derived from external objects beyond our control (the will is not autonomous).

Therefore, the mandates of material ethics are hypothetical: not valid in themselves, but dependent on achieving the desired goal.

Material ethics cannot formulate universal... Continue reading "Kantian Ethics: Moral Ideals and Duty" »

Descartes' Method (Meditations)

Introduction

Descartes sought a reliable method for attaining true scientific knowledge. He aimed to establish a foundation for reasoning and certainty.

Depth

The method needed to be simple, error-proof, and conducive to expanding knowledge. However, relying solely on the senses proved insufficient for acquiring genuine knowledge. Descartes' method analyzes ideas rationally, prioritizing the reliability of innate ideas over sensory experience. Inspired by mathematics, it involves four key rules:

1. Accept only clear and distinct ideas as true, grasped through intuition (immediate knowledge).
2. Analyze complex ideas by breaking them down into simpler, clear, and distinct components.
3. Reconstruct the analyzed idea through

Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Introduction

This text will discuss a fragment from the introduction to Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Before analyzing the text, it's necessary to briefly introduce the ideas and present the central problem.

Kant's Requirements for Scientific Propositions

According to Kant, a proposition must possess universal, necessary, and real character to be considered scientific. This corresponds to knowledge-dogmatic assertions. Empiricism posits that the form and content of ideas are contributions of the object. Critics of this theory of knowledge raised concerns about the validity of science, questioning whether an idea is true when based solely on sense perception.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

Rationalist theory... Continue reading "Kant's Critique: Synthetic A Priori Judgments Explained" »

Ethical Criteria of Truth: Evidence and Errors

Evidence is the ultimate criterion of truth, but how do we measure the strength of evidence? Ethics is the most terrible and most glorious aspect of being human. The pattern of life, truth, and values, namely the need to distinguish truth from falsehood to avoid tragedy. Values are at stake as fundamental as peace, freedom, equality, and justice. This is very serious. Some say we cannot agree upon the formulation of ethical principles valid for humanity. Although in some cases there are violent disputes, often there is no disagreement on the fundamentals, but on how to accept or interpret the accepted principles. All these problems that ethics will have to resolve, but should not hide the fact that... Continue reading "Ethical Criteria of Truth: Evidence, Values, and Universal Principles" »

Nihilism and the Path to the Übermensch

Nihilism is a critical movement in the history of Western culture. The Western spirit, burdened by high, inadequate, and fictitious values, succumbs to nihilism—i.e., losing faith in these foundational values. When this occurs, culture remains nonsensical, as nihilism acts as a destructive force against the basis of Western civilization: God, the monotheistic God. This God dies, whom we have collectively killed.

Overcoming Nihilism: The Will to Power

When we realize this death, we can overcome the nihilistic state by constructing a new table of values leading to the Übermensch (Superman). Nietzsche’s active nihilism is a violent, destructive power that stems from a growing spiritual strength. The desire... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Übermensch: Active Nihilism and the Three Transformations" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Mind and Reality

Physicalist Reductionism or Identity Theory considers that mental states are neurophysiological states.

Functionalism: Mental processes are not reduced to neurophysiological processes. Instead, a phenomenon is defined by the function it performs or the outcome it leads to.

Property Dualism: This perspective posits the existence of two types of properties (mental and physical). It contrasts with Monism, which considers that humans are formed by a single substance or reality.

Personalism: Claims the unity of the human being as both body and spirit.

Understanding Human Behavior

Defining Behavior

Behavior is the observable way individuals react to reality.

Types of Reactions

• Instinctive Reaction: An identical

Key Branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics

Studies the fundamental nature of reality and the properties of all that exists.

Logic

Focuses on reasoning as expressed linguistically, studying its structure, form, and correctness to arrive at valid conclusions.

Epistemology

Reflects on the origins, validity, and limits of knowledge.

Anthropology

Analyzes human beings from various perspectives, such as biological, social, or cultural.

Ethics

Examines moral codes and analyzes their rules, rationale, validity, and universality.

Aesthetics

Examines the nature of beauty and artistic creations.

Politics

Deals with aspects of the human community, such as social origins, power, and governance. Other fields include the philosophy of language, history, and social development.... Continue reading "Core Philosophical Concepts: Branches, Logos, and Mythos" »