Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Peloponnesian War and its Impact on Athenian Society

The Peloponnesian War pitted **Sparta** against **Athens**. Civil strife resulted from tensions accumulated over a century between two different social and political systems: the oligarchic and anarchic Spartan system, and the Athenian system, with increasing participation of the people.

Cultural Tensions in Ancient Greece

On the cultural level, there was tension between the persistence of religious traditions and the spirit of innovation and streamlining. We can see this in Greek literature, especially in the tragedies of Sophocles, Euripides, and others.

Plato's Philosophy: The Search for the Ideal

This search for the ideal, or perfect, characterizes the philosophy of **Plato**, who conceives... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Justice, Ideal City, and the Philosopher-King" »

Marx's Criticisms of H, L, R Models

Marx's criticisms of the models by H, L, R (presumably Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau) include:

1. They start with an abstract individual, i.e., considered separately from the context that gave them birth.
2. They assert the state is rational and universal, whereas Marx contended that, far from being a mediating instrument, it becomes a dominator.

Critique of Abstract Separation

The modern theory of abstract principles, or "abstract separation" (Abstracto separado), means that it abstractly considers and separates individuals from the context that has engendered them. Individuals are the product of a culture, society, and historical epoch, and only exist from this conception. The idea of a "state of nature" as a separate... Continue reading "Marx's Core Concepts: Work, Alienation, and History" »

Foundations of Human Existence

There are two fundamental elements that constitute our lives: those that build us as individuals and those that guide us toward a good moral character.

Key Components of Our Being

Liberty: The Power of Human Choice

Unlike predetermined entities, we are not confined to a single answer or choice because we are liberated beings. Liberty fundamentally constitutes human beings. In principle, we are open to intelligently creating a world of possibilities and choosing among those we consider best. While we can make ourselves somewhat as we want, true freedom is not merely doing what we desire, but rather how we respond to what happens to us.

Mood: Our Fundamental Sense of Existence

Our freedom is conditioned by the spirit... Continue reading "Human Existence: Liberty, Character, and Purposeful Living" »

Influences on Nietzsche's Philosophy

Nineteenth-century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, born in Saxony, received a large number of influences. These were based on the classical Greek world during an early stage, and various philosophers of the modern age in the second stage of his thought.

His engagement with ancient Greece focuses on the tension between the Dionysian and Apollonian worldviews. He strongly denied the influence of Socrates and Plato, but accepted Heraclitus, taking from him the claim of the existence of contradiction and movement, and studies on change and opposition.

In his first phase, the influence of the Sophists, Stoicism, and early Christianity can also be observed.

In the second phase, we find a strong impact from Enlightenment... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Influences, Life, and Philosophical Context" »

Immanuel Kant: Life and Work

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a German philosopher, widely considered to be one of the most influential thinkers of the modern era. Born in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) on April 22, 1724, Kant was educated at the Collegium Fredericianum and the University of Königsberg. At school, he studied the classics, and at university, he focused on physics and mathematics. After his father's death, he was forced to leave university and earn a living as a private tutor. In 1755, with the help of a friend, he resumed his studies and obtained his doctorate.

He then taught at the university for 15 years, initially lecturing on science and mathematics, and gradually expanding to cover almost all branches of philosophy.... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and the Copernican Revolution" »

Liberal Resistance & Return to Absolutism in Spain

Liberals, wary of the shift, traveled to swear allegiance to the new Constitution and policy framework. However, absolutists quickly demanded the restoration of absolutism, as seen in the Manifesto of the Persians. By Royal Decree on May 4, 1814, Ferdinand VII annulled the Constitution and laws of Cadiz, marking a return to the old regime. From 1815 onward, Ferdinand VII and his government faced the impossible task of rebuilding a war-torn nation. The country suffered immense human losses, and the royal treasury was bankrupt. Peasants, unable to pay rent, protested and demanded the reinstatement of old tributes. Liberal military uprisings, urban riots, and rural unrest demonstrated widespread... Continue reading "Spain's Shift: From Absolutism to Liberal Unrest & Augustine's Pursuit of Truth" »

The Spanish Regency Era: Political Transformations (1834-1843)

The Royal Statute of 1834: Maria Cristina's Regency

During the regency of Maria Cristina of Naples, Spain underwent a significant transition from an absolutist state to a liberal state. Absolute reformists and moderate factions collaborated to construct a new political commitment. This commitment was embodied in the Royal Statute of 1834, a charter issued by the Queen Regent.

Under this Statute, the Queen retained almost all her powers, limited only by the establishment of the Cortes. This bicameral legislature could merely approve projects and discuss laws presented by the Queen Regent. The Cortes were formed by an elitist estate of barristers with voting rights, reflecting a restricted... Continue reading "Spain's Liberal Transition: Regencies and Constitutions (1834-1843)" »

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is an intellectual activity, though not always well-defined, linked to reflection and theorizing. It is also an activity related to adopting certain attitudes towards life and is linked to personal action. It is a discourse that claims knowledge is based on three basic elements:

• Rationality: Trying to give rational explanations.
• Totality: Attempting to explain everything and not be divided into parts.
• Radicality of Questions: Trying to reach the limit of knowledge.

Philosophy is a work in constant progress; it never ends. You can always find new questions and new answers. It is usually related to questions that are more important than the answers. Philosophy tries to clarify ideas critically, to justify and defend... Continue reading "Understanding Philosophy: Theory and Practice" »

Hume vs. Descartes: Core Philosophical Differences

David Hume, a prominent empiricist, argued that knowledge stems fundamentally from experience. He famously used the example of pool balls to illustrate that we cannot logically deduce a cause-and-effect relationship between two successive events merely through reason; we only observe constant conjunction. For Hume, our belief in causality is an unjustified product of the mind, guided by custom or habit, arising from repeated observations.

Both Hume and René Descartes sought to justify their doubts about existing knowledge and outlined methods for finding absolute truth. However, their approaches differed significantly. Hume started from sense perception and used induction (forming general laws... Continue reading "Hume vs. Descartes: Empiricism & Rationalism Compared" »

7. Structure and Function Meet Human Faculty. For Kant, knowledge is a synthesis of concept and experience. When we expect to know by pure concepts, knowledge is empty. When we reduce everything to experience, knowledge is blind. Within the faculty of human knowledge, Kant distinguishes three functions: sensitivity, understanding, and reason, each with a peculiar formation and a particular role in the development of knowledge.

The sensitivity supplies knowledge through the senses. Understanding processes these materials and makes judgments. The reason argues and follows its base.

Sensitivity is the faculty by which humans have cognitive contact with reality. It is the world of the senses, providing the matter of knowledge. Through awareness,... Continue reading "Kant's Philosophy: Sensitivity, Understanding, and Reason" »