Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Collectivism: Defining the Social Machinery

Collectivism is a concept in which the individual is merely one piece of the social machinery. Its primary intent is to ensure the vitality and continuity of the whole group. Therefore, the individual is only relevant in relation to the operation of the social machinery, possessing no inherent value, and is considered perfectly interchangeable and replaceable. This philosophy tends to promote forms of social organization and management aimed at seeking the common good.

Totalitarianism and Individual Freedom

Totalitarianism refers to dictatorships of the State, where the interests of the State are paramount. This system is usually synonymous with a lack of individual freedoms, as those freedoms can threaten... Continue reading "Defining Core Concepts: Individualism, Collectivism, and Social Structure" »

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

This text delves into the philosophy of René Descartes, a prominent figure born in 1596 in Touraine, France, who passed away in 1650 in Sweden. He is recognized as one of the leading representatives of Modern Philosophy and is widely considered the father of Rationalism. His most important work, Discourse on Method, outlines the necessity for a new philosophical method, fundamentally based on mathematical deduction. Other significant works include Meditations on First Philosophy (often referred to as Metaphysical Meditations), Treatise on the World, Principles of Philosophy, and Rules for the Direction of the Mind. Descartes's thought emerged as a significant outcome of the Humanist and Scientistic movements. He became the chief representative... Continue reading "René Descartes: Architect of Modern Rationalism" »

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »

Ethics and Morality: The Science of Conduct

The distinction between morality and ethics, though sometimes considered artificial, is based on its undoubted utility. Morality refers to the set of behaviors, norms, and values that govern a society at a given moment. Ethics, conversely, is the theoretical reflection on the behaviors, norms, and values that shape morality.

Understanding the Moral Act

Actions that are likely to be approved or rejected by society are considered acts of moral evaluation. For an act to be considered morally accountable, it must possess specific characteristics:

• An act is aware when the subject clearly knows what they are doing.
• An act is voluntary when the subject intends to do what they do and chooses from several options.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

To the rationalist, metaphysics was the body of knowledge to which man can reach by his own lights, sound as a carrier of these ideas since birth. These innate ideas are embedded in humans and can be discovered without the help of experience, just by thinking. For rationalists, the metaphysical has to develop and organize the rest of knowledge, based on innate and obvious truths.

For the empiricist, all knowledge comes from outside, from what our senses pick up. So for them, there are no innate ideas, but a mind, initially 'virgin', in which experience is typed. They denied any possibility of metaphysics, and dogmatism and moral consequences are derived from all of this. In denying the metaphysical, everything is reduced... Continue reading "Kant's Critical Philosophy: Bridging Rationalism and Empiricism" »

Formal Ethics: A Deontological Approach

Formal ethics, often associated with Kant, focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions, irrespective of their purposes or consequences. Unlike theological ethics, Kantian ethics emphasizes duty as the sole criterion for ethical action. It's a deontological approach, meaning morality stems from obligation. Acting ethically means acting out of duty, transcending personal interests.

Emotive Ethics: The Role of Emotions in Moral Judgments

Emotivism posits that moral judgments originate from emotions. This theory suggests that morality lies outside the realm of rational knowledge. Moral rules and judgments arise from feelings of approval or rejection triggered by certain actions or experiences.... Continue reading "Understanding Formal, Emotive, and Productive Work Ethics" »

The Concept of Rational Action

Humans are endowed with reason, which we can use more or less adequately. Rationality is the proper use of reason. It applies to:

• Our beliefs
• Our motives
• Our actions

A rational action is based on good reasons, forming rational beliefs and motives that drive the action for which they are reasons.

Individual Rational Action

This is the action of an individual agent whose reasons for acting are good reasons. Conditions for Individual Rational Action include:

• Awareness of the purposes of consistency and logic, structure, and practical feasibility.
• Priority of objectives over the means.
• Autonomous and universal ends: focusing on one's own welfare.
• Rational beliefs regarding the best ways.
• Rational behavior.

Rational Collective

Descartes' Philosophical Context and Major Works

Animals are capable of carnal love, and we were like trees, sensitive beings. If objects could not love, anything that has movement and feeling could. But as we are men, created in the image of our Creator, who is the eternal truth, eternal and true love, we are able to return there in the triple form of human nature, as the image of God. "I am, I know, I want to be."

René Descartes was born in 1596. He studied at the Jesuit college of La Flèche. After graduation, he decided to learn from the "great book of the world." In 1619, he embarked on a search for truth through the use of reason. His most important works are:

• Rules for the Direction of the Spirit: An unfinished work containing twenty-one

The Will to Power and Eternal Recurrence

The fundamental value exalted by the Will to Power is the exaltation of life. The concept of Eternal Return suggests that all configurations of matter and energy will combine and recur infinitely, meaning every moment will be lived again, exactly as it is now, an infinite number of times. Man is merely a step toward the Übermensch (Superman).

The Three Metamorphoses of the Spirit

The metamorphosis of the spirit involves three crucial stages:

1. The Camel: Symbolizes those who obey and carry heavy loads, such as traditional moral precepts.
2. The Lion: Represents the great conqueror who fights for freedom against the restrictive “Thou Shalt.”
3. The Child: A state of innocence, free from prejudice, ready to affirm