Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Emergence of Philosophy in Ancient Greece

The appearance of philosophy in Greece coincided with a flourishing of trade and freedom of expression, particularly in relation to Egypt. The solar eclipse of 585 BC is often cited as a marker for the birth of philosophy.

Birth of Rational Discourse

The shift from Mythos to Logos (from myth to reason) marked the beginning of rational discourse focused on understanding the natural world.

• Egypt: Contributed writing, arithmetic, and astronomy.
• Greece: Focused on reflecting upon knowledge (filo-sofia).

Early Philosophers and Their Ideas

The first philosophers sought to understand the physical world using Logos, a rational approach to understanding things. They aimed to comprehend the natural world through... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Philosophy: Origins and Key Thinkers" »

Foundations of Society and the State

Core Functions of Society

Every society performs three fundamental functions: political, economic, and cultural.

Defining the State

The state can be defined as a political organization that:

• Divides society into rulers and ruled.
• Is linked to a specific community (nationals and foreigners).
• Is coupled with an established border territory.
• Possesses an economic system (e.g., ownership of property).
• Governs relations between people (e.g., types of family associations).
• Operates as a legal system backed by the legitimate use of force.

Plato's Innate Drives and Societal Needs

According to Plato, humans coexist with three types of innate drives:

• Concupiscible: For the pleasure of the senses.
• Irascible: Encourages heroic action

Language in Communication

Language, an interpersonal communication system, serves three primary functions:

• Representative: Linguistic signs symbolize and represent states of affairs.
• Expressive: Linguistic signs manifest the speaker's internal states.
• Appellate: Linguistic signs act as signals, eliciting a reaction from the receiver.

Dimensions of Language

Words, as part of a linguistic code, form the basis of communication across all languages. Three core dimensions shape language:

• Syntactic: This dimension governs the relationships between signs. Syntactic rules dictate word order within phrases and sentences. For example, a sentence like "Transmit a dog does not bite me" is syntactically flawed.
• Semantic: This dimension concerns the relationship

Ethics

Ethics is an edge. Practicing it involves trafficking in human rights at the individual level.

Right is a capacity that humans have to freely choose between different possibilities, knowing the truth of something.

Freedom is a value that is synonymous with thinking and acting independently of any coercion. Freedom always supposes responsibility.

Disclaimer: This is a mean value of what we know to respond freely.

Morality: We have a set of rules that humans use to regulate their behavior and form their personality. For example: Friendship.

• Theoretical reason: "Things are like this" -> Science
• Practical reason: To make things sound! -> Ethics

Ethics: Interested in acts done by a subject with morality.

Values

Values are qualities that people... Continue reading "Ethical Principles and Values in Decision-Making" »

Branches of Philosophy

• Metaphysics: Reflections on everything that exists, making it the general discipline.
• Epistemology: Explores the possibility, origin, and limits of knowledge, also questioning the criteria of truth.
• Logic: Studies valid reasoning, guaranteeing the attainment of true conclusions.
• Ethics: Addresses how individuals should behave, what constitutes good, and the nature of happiness.
• Political Philosophy: Deals with the best way to live and the organization of the state. It addresses issues such as democracy, human rights, and justice.
• Aesthetics: Concerned with the problem of art, it attempts to answer the question: "What is beauty?"

Characteristics of Philosophy

• Rational: Employs logical arguments, demonstrations, and conscious thought.

Thomas Aquinas: Reason and Faith

Thomas Aquinas explores the relationship between reason and faith. His theology is based on this relationship, asserting that knowledge beyond reason or experience is accessible through revelation and reason. Theology, therefore, becomes a paramount science.

Rationalized Theology of Thomas Aquinas

1. Faith and Reason are Distinct: Reason, based solely on experience, can solve problems within the realm of reality but cannot progress further without faith.
2. Common Truths: There are three common truths: the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, and natural law ethics.
3. No Conflict: Conflict between reason and faith is impossible. Apparent conflicts indicate either misinterpretation of reason or misunderstanding

Curriculum Vitae

A Curriculum Vitae (CV) is a document that records and synthesizes information regarding a candidate's academic background and work experience for a job application. Its primary purpose is to secure a job interview where the provided information can be expanded upon.

Classical Curriculum Vitae

Data is typically presented in the following order:

Personal Information

Education

Courses taken, name of institution, years enrolled or graduated, and title obtained.

Complementary Skills

Relevant courses, seminars, and any other useful skills.

Professional Experience

Work experience, company name, tasks performed, and duration. Explain reasons for leaving previous positions and list jobs in reverse chronological order (most recent first).

Functional

Descartes' Methodological Doubt

Descartes' methodological doubt reflects a pivotal historical movement, aiming to establish a process for discovering the first indubitable truth. He presents a situation of crisis and disorientation in the pursuit of knowledge.

There are two key moments in this process:

• Negative Moment: Suspending judgment on anything that can be doubted.
• Positive Moment: The consequence of this doubt is the discovery of the first true and certain knowledge.

Central to this process are several hypotheses of doubt:

• The Senses Hypothesis: Our senses sometimes deceive us, making them unreliable sources of knowledge.
• The Dream Hypothesis: It's possible that everything we believe to be real is merely a dream.

These first two hypotheses primarily... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt and Divine Proofs" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge and Truth

Understanding how we acquire and validate knowledge is central to philosophy. Various schools of thought offer distinct views on the nature of truth and certainty.

Dogmatism: Certainty in Knowledge

Dogmatism is a philosophical position asserting that we can acquire safe and universal knowledge, and that absolute certainty is attainable. It extends its defense to more positive forms of knowledge. A key figure associated with this attitude is René Descartes.

Skepticism: Questioning the Possibility of Knowledge

Skepticism stands as the opposite of dogmatism. Moderated skepticism questions whether it is possible to have sure and firm knowledge, while radical skepticism denies this possibility entirely,... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on Truth and Scientific Progress" »

Hume's Critique of Causality

The Empirical Basis of Causality

Hume's analysis of causality stems from empirical observation. He argues that causality is a relationship established by the mind, based on the psychological mechanisms of habit and custom. Repeated experiences create habits, which in turn form our beliefs about the future. We expect events to repeat in the future based on past occurrences due to habit.

Causality and A Priori Knowledge

Hume asserts that causal relationships cannot be known a priori. Reasoning alone, without experience, cannot reveal cause-and-effect relationships. For example, analyzing the concept of 'fire' doesn't inherently include the notion of 'pain'. Causal relationships are not between ideas; our knowledge... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism and the Illusion of Causality" »