Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Anthropology

For Plato, the soul (psyche) is the principle of life in the body, an element opposite to embodiment. The soul is immortal and belongs to the intelligible world, while the body is mortal and belongs to the sensible world. The body attracts desires, and one can liberate themselves from these bonds through philosophy.

Drawing on Orphic and Pythagorean influences, Plato defends the soul's immortality and its transmigration from one body to another. In the dialogue Phaedrus, he explains the nature of the soul using the famous myth of the winged chariot. A charioteer drives a carriage with two horses: one is good and beautiful, the other is not. The less noble horse is attracted to the material world and destabilizes the carriage,... Continue reading "Plato's Anthropology and Ontology: Soul, Body, and Ideas" »

Argument

An argument is offered from the subjective viewpoint of an issuer on a topic. Its purpose is to influence and convince the receiver of the validity of its reasoning, thus dominating the conative or appellative function.

To persuade the receiver, the sender selects arguments, reasons, and evidence supporting their opinion. Objections to opposing arguments, called counterarguments, can also be used.

Elements and Structure of Argumentative Text

Argumentative texts have a logical and orderly structure. They are organized around a main idea developed in the body of the argument and end with a conclusion.

• Thesis

  It is the main idea around which the text is organized. The location of the thesis determines the structure of the argumentative text.

Utilitarianism: Happiness and the Common Good

Utilitarianism, closely related to ethical theories like eudaimonia and hedonism, defends the human purpose of happiness or pleasure. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) considered that actions and regulations should be judged by the Principle of Utility, or the Principle of Greatest Happiness. This is a teleological ethics, valuing actions as a means to an end, based on the consequences that result from them: an action is good when its consequences are useful (bringing us closer to happiness), and it is not bad if its implications do not take us away from happiness or pleasure. The principle of morality is, therefore, the greatest happiness (pleasure) for as many living beings as possible.

According to... Continue reading "Major Ethical Frameworks: Mill, Kant, Habermas" »

Plato's Political Theory

6.1. Justice and the Ideal Community

Plato's ideal community aims to build a polis where justice (dike) prevails, as described in The Republic and Laws. The goal is not for a few to be happy, but for all citizens to thrive. To achieve this, several steps are necessary:

1. A clear understanding of justice (as explored in Apology and the early books of The Republic).
2. Overcoming tyrannical conceptions of politics, where some rule by force or deception.
3. Educating both citizens and politicians.
4. Ensuring that the most intelligent and generous individuals are empowered.

6.2. Levels of Organization: Soul and City

There is a parallel between the organization of the soul and the city, with a similar three-class division:

• Archontes (Rulers)

David Hume: Moral Emotivism and the Foundation of Ethics

Location: D. Hume belongs to the period of modern philosophy, namely the current empiricist who argues that the origin and limits of knowledge is experience. D. Hume tried to achieve for human science what Newton did for the natural sciences. On the other hand, he defended the theory of moral emotivism against theories that placed reason as the foundation of morality.

Theme: To make moral judgments about someone, we turn away from domestic courts and go for a universal principle of human constitution itself with which we agree.

Ideas:

1. When someone calls another a rival, opponent, or adversary, they are expressing feelings from their particular circumstances.
2. When we say of someone that they

The Natural, Cultural, and Social Dimensions of Humanity

The Natural and Cultural in Us

Humans exist within two realms: the natural and the cultural. We are a part of nature, subject to its laws and realities. Yet, we also inhabit a world of our own making – the realm of culture, built through learning and social interaction. Anthropology distinguishes between natural behaviors, transmitted genetically, and cultural behaviors, learned socially.

The biological distinction between genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype (observable characteristics) highlights how individuals are the result of interactions between their innate nature and their environment.

• Nature: Innate, genetically programmed traits.
• Culture: Acquired through social learning.

Paleontology... Continue reading "Human Evolution: A Biocultural Journey" »

On Self-Knowledge and the Origin of Moral Prejudices

We know that we are strangers to ourselves; we ourselves are strangers to ourselves. This is a good foundation. We have not sought ever—how could it happen that one day we were to meet? It is rightly said: 'Where your treasure is, there your heart is.' Our treasure is where the hives are based on our knowledge. We are always coming to them—winged animals born and honey gatherers of the spirit—we take care of itself heart of one thing: of "bringing home" something.

In regard, moreover, to life, the so-called "experience"—who of us has even been serious enough for them? Or had enough time? I fear that in such cases we have ever paid good attention "to the question." It just happens that... Continue reading "Self-Knowledge and Moral Prejudices: An Introspection" »

Plato's Republic: Chapter VII - Allegory of the Cave

I. The Cave: Knowledge of the material world. Prisoner's release and passage from "eikasía" to "pistis."

II. Rise and Progressive Knowledge: "Dianoia" - the world outside the cave: the intelligible world. "Noesis" or knowledge of the Good: the cause of all that exists.

III. Happiness of the Released Prisoner: Attained through wisdom. Compassion for those who remain prisoners of ignorance, unwilling to leave the cave.

IV. The Danger of Enlightenment: The enlightened one knows that attempts to free others and lead them to truth would be met with ridicule and potentially death.

V. First Interpretation of Plato's Allegory:

• Section One: The sensible world view = the cave. The fire in the cave = the

Descartes' Method of Doubt

To construct this imaginary tree, we start by looking into metaphysics, a foothold firm and sure, an absolute truth on which it can rely to keep on climbing. For this, a method that uses the idea as a guide: the method of doubt or the evidence. It has four rules:

1. Evidence: Accept as true only the obvious (intuitive). Everything has to possess two obvious characteristics: clarity and distinction.
2. Analysis: Break down problems into simple parts, do not address them in complex ways.
3. Synthesis: After analyzing the simple parts, rebuild the complex and confirm or not its validity.
4. Enumeration: Check (list) all our steps to make sure that we were not wrong.

The Process of Doubt

I suspect that it remains high, especially considering... Continue reading "Descartes' Method of Doubt and the Existence of God" »

The Proof of God's Existence

Saint Augustine of Hippo (4th-5th centuries) begins with the existence of absolutely certain truths present in the human mind to prove the existence of God. These truths, which he calls "instances of the arbitration of reason," do not come from sensory experience. They are more perfect than man himself, and they are timeless and universal.

Saint Augustine concludes that the origin of such truths is God. If these instances of arbitration do not come from the human mind, then they must originate in a being superior to the mind, a being that is also eternal and perfect. This being is God.

Thus, Augustine demonstrates God's existence through thought itself. This is similar to the proof offered by Saint Anselm of Canterbury... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Philosophy, Faith, and Existence" »