Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

1. Historical and Cultural Context

Ancient Greek philosophy flourished from the 7th century BC to the 1st century AD, encompassing three distinct periods:

A. Hellenic Period

Monarchies, the dominant form of government in the Greek polis until 650 BC, were replaced by oligarchies and subsequently by tyrannies that spread throughout the Mediterranean colonies. In the 5th century BC, Athens emerged as a prominent city, adopting a democratic constitution under Pericles. This era marked a golden age for Athens. Following victory over the Persians in the Median Wars, Athens led the Delian League, and its democratic system was emulated by other cities. However, Athens' prosperity sparked jealousy in Sparta, leading to the Peloponnesian War. Sparta's... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Philosophy: From Pre-Socratics to Plato" »

Kant and the Enlightenment

Why Kant is an Enlightenment Philosopher

• Kant embodies most of the features generally outlined in the previous paragraphs on the Enlightenment, directly related to the concerns illustrated.
• His Critique of Pure Reason is one of the most significant human attempts to prove that critical reason is the sole source of all human knowledge, being the main characteristic of man and his progress.
• Kant's philosophy is instantly recognizable in the priority given to reason as the supreme power and the only court that can dictate the truth. His judgments are subject to themes of religion, progress, society, morality, man, freedom, law, and, above all, one's duty to reason as the sole judge of all.
• Kant was consistent with the primacy

Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) facilitates decision-making, objective setting, and alternative generation. This structured brainstorming method yields focused results, proving valuable when aiming for common conclusions or proposals. NGT helps overcome obstacles in achieving unanimous agreements and clearly defining collective objectives. Ideally used with groups of up to twelve people, NGT sessions combine individual reflection with group interaction.

NGT works best with homogenous groups striving for consensus on a specific action plan. If conflicting viewpoints arise, separate nominal groups representing different perspectives can be formed. A typical NGT session follows these steps:

1. The leader introduces

Basic Propositions of Classical Mechanics (Newton)

• It is possible and desirable to reduce all natural phenomena to the interaction of material particles possessing objective reality.
• Only mathematically quantifiable qualities: extension and motion.
• It is sufficient to describe mathematically the laws governing movements: scientific explanation only needs to express the mathematical relationship between two covariant variables.
• Size and extent in space are objective properties of bodies.
• Mass is a property of all bodies.
• All movements in nature have a cause. In physical reality, there is no freedom. Everything is determined.
• Primary qualities of objects (shape, size, motion, and position) are independent of the observer.

The Problem of Human Freedom

St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy

Differences with Aristotle

St. Thomas Aquinas' political philosophy is based on Aristotle's. However, for St. Thomas, man's only natural order is God. Some key differences exist between them:

First Difference: The Perfect Community

For Aristotle, the state is the perfect community, satisfying all human needs and providing happiness. In St. Thomas' time, the concept of the city differed from Aristotle's. St. Thomas distinguished two types of communities:

• The house or family
• The city and the kingdom, understood as a grouping of cities, which St. Thomas considered the perfect community.

Second Difference: The Concept of Peace

Aristotle did not consider peace a necessary condition of a perfect community. He believed... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy: A Comparison with Aristotle" »

Aristotle's Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

Aristotle's ethics centers on the pursuit of happiness as its ultimate purpose. While some equate happiness with pleasure or wealth, Aristotle believed that the wise person finds it in living a life of intellectual virtue. This doesn't mean rejecting sensory pleasures or material goods, but rather enjoying them in moderation, ensuring they don't hinder the contemplation of truth.

The Concept of Virtue

Aristotle developed the concept of virtue as a balance. Human actions should be governed by prudence and reason. He distinguished between two types of virtue:

• Dianoetic virtues: Related to the exercise of intelligence.
• Ethical virtues: Related to sensitivity and affection.

All virtues are habits acquired... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics: Pursuit of Happiness and Virtue" »

Myth vs. Logos: The Dawn of Philosophy

Myth

Myths provided a sense of the world, unlike philosophy. A myth is a fantastical story, rich in symbols and metaphors, passed down through generations or created by a group of authors. Myths explain the world's origin and answer questions about the afterlife.

Characteristics of Myth:

1. A sacred narrative story.
2. Originates in a primordial, mythical time.
3. Recounts the exploits of supernatural or imaginary beings, hence its symbolic nature.
4. Considered a true narrative speaking of realities, not to be discussed or questioned.

Myth refers to a deeper meaning, an experience beyond history, serving as a reference for the present. Myths are typically transmitted orally, highlighting social identity and cohesion, playing... Continue reading "Myth and Logos: The Rise of Philosophical Thought" »

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy, a broad field of knowledge born in antiquity, is the pursuit of understanding through rational, systematic, and critical inquiry. Originating in Ionia, a Greek colony in Asia Minor, during the 6th century BC, philosophy emerged when humans began to observe their surroundings with wonder and sought to replace mythological explanations of reality with philosophical ones. Philosophy also examines the validity and fundamentals of other disciplines, such as the philosophy of culture, mind, and language.

Key Characteristics of Philosophy

• Rational: Based on logical arguments, empirical observations, and demonstrations.
• Systematic: Demands that all claims are related and hierarchical, ensuring consistency and order.
• Critical:

Life as Radical Being-in-the-World

For Ortega y Gasset, life is not merely existence, but coexistence with the world. He uses reason to understand our experiences and find meaning in life. Ortega y Gasset summarizes the sense of life as follows:

1. Life is radical being.
2. To live is to find oneself in the world.
3. Living involves taking care of something.
4. Life is a continuous chore.
5. Life is a problem.
6. Living is being found.
7. Life is coexistence and cohabitation.

These categories of life are vital. Life is a continuous becoming. As Ortega y Gasset says, "man is not nature but history."

Man in Time and the Mission of Our Times

Man lives in a given time, and the task of our times is always a mission. Every era has its own way of life and its own tempo. Generations... Continue reading "José Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy of Life and Times" »

Plato's Anthropology

For Plato, the soul (psyche) is the principle of life in the body, an element opposite to embodiment. The soul is immortal and belongs to the intelligible world, while the body is mortal and belongs to the sensible world. The body attracts desires, and one can liberate themselves from these bonds through philosophy.

Drawing on Orphic and Pythagorean influences, Plato defends the soul's immortality and its transmigration from one body to another. In the dialogue Phaedrus, he explains the nature of the soul using the famous myth of the winged chariot. A charioteer drives a carriage with two horses: one is good and beautiful, the other is not. The less noble horse is attracted to the material world and destabilizes the carriage,... Continue reading "Plato's Anthropology and Ontology: Soul, Body, and Ideas" »