Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Common Logical Fallacies in Argumentation

1. Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force)

This fallacy replaces logical reasoning with intimidation or coercion. Instead of offering evidence, the speaker uses a threat—physical, social, or economic—to compel agreement.

Example: “Approve this project or you will lose your position.” It violates rational debate because persuasion under threat does not prove correctness.

2. Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Authority)

This fallacy incorrectly bases truth on an authority's statement without evaluating evidence. While expert opinions can inform arguments, they do not replace proof.

Example: “A famous athlete uses this supplement, so it must be safe.”

3. Ambiguity Fallacy

Occurs when vague, double-meaning, or undefined... Continue reading "Common Logical Fallacies: Identification and Analysis" »

Isolation and Identity in Classic Literature

Isolation plays a crucial role in shaping identity in both Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and 1984 by George Orwell. In each novel, characters are cut off—socially, emotionally, or psychologically—from others, and this isolation deeply affects how they see themselves and the world. Shelley presents isolation as something that distorts identity and breeds despair, while Orwell shows how enforced isolation is used as a tool to erase individuality and control thought. Together, the novels suggest that isolation does not simply reflect identity, but actively reshapes and damages it.

The Creature’s Descent in Frankenstein

In Frankenstein, the Creature’s identity is largely formed through rejection

Fundamental Ethical Theories and Concepts

Key Test Insights

• Utilitarianism focuses on consequences, while deontology focuses on duties.

How Ethics are Defined

Ethics are a branch of philosophy that reflects on what is right and wrong.

Ethics vs. Morality

Ethics involve analysis, while morality is putting ethical ideas into practice.

Ethical Values

Guiding ideals like justice, freedom, honesty, love, and respect.

Ethical Principles

General rules guiding proper behavior.

Two Ethical Principles

Confucius: 'Don't do to others what you don't like done to you.' Christian: 'Love others as yourself.'

Ethical Virtues

Habits aiding correct behavior and moral actions.

Ethical Vices

Bad habits leading to harmful actions.

Ethical Codes

Set of values, principles, rules, duties, and responsibilities guiding behavior.

Requirements for Ethical Reflection

• Reason
• Freedom
• Knowledge
• Responsibility
• Universality
• Education

Applied

Human Needs and Abilities

• Humans develop abilities because of their needs and the opportunities to fulfill them.
• The need to experience is central to human existence and is never fully satisfied.

The Systematic Nature of Existence

• Everything in the human body is considered a system.
• Humans interact with both physical and conceptual realities from the moment they are created.

Defining Human Systems

• A system is a group of elements working together to create a complex whole.
• Examples of human systems include hand and face development, language, and the shift from orality to writing.

Layers of Systematic Reality

The Natural Layer: Biological & Psychological

• This layer includes biological and psychological aspects that can be verified scientifically.

The

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Understanding Share Forfeiture

Share forfeiture occurs when a shareholder fails to pay the required call money (either in part or full) on the shares issued to them. When this happens, the company may forfeit the shares as a means of canceling the unpaid shares and reclaiming the unpaid amount. This process is crucial for maintaining the integrity of a company's share capital.

The Share Forfeiture Process

1. Failure to Pay Calls: If a shareholder does not pay the call money on shares within the prescribed time, the company can initiate the forfeiture process.
2. Board Resolution: The company's board of directors must pass a formal resolution to forfeit the shares due to non-payment of calls.
3. Notice of Forfeiture: A formal notice is sent to the defaulting

Overcoming Common Sales Fears and Reluctance

6. Stage Fright: Fear of Public Speaking

What is Stage Fright?

Stage fright is the fear of speaking or presenting in front of others. This happens in meetings, group presentations, phone calls with multiple people, or public speeches. You get nervous, anxious, or even freeze up when it’s your turn to talk. It’s a fear of being judged, saying something wrong, or looking silly. Many salespeople feel this when they have to speak in front of groups, even if they are confident in one-on-one conversations.

How Does It Manifest?

• You feel nervous before meetings or presentations.
• Your voice shakes or your mind goes blank.
• You avoid speaking in group settings.
• You rehearse too much and still don’t feel ready.

Fundamentals of International Law

Definition of International Law

International Law refers to a body of rules, principles, and norms that govern the relations between states and other international entities. It is a system of legal norms designed to regulate interactions in the international community, ensuring peace, cooperation, and justice. According to Oppenheim, International Law is “the body of rules which are legally binding on states in their intercourse with each other.”

It encompasses treaties, customary practices, general principles of law, judicial decisions, and scholarly writings. International Law operates in a decentralized system, relying on the consent of states, and is distinct from domestic law due to its focus on sovereign... Continue reading "Principles, Sources, and Enforcement of International Law" »

Freedom and Human Nature

Humans, though possessing instincts, are not determined by nature. Thanks to our rational capacity, we can choose among a number of possibilities. This capability is known as freedom.

However, certain factors in our behavior do not depend on us. No one chooses their birthplace, gender, or skin color. These are given to us and constitute what Ortega y Gasset called circumstances.

To be free means to be responsible for our actions and accept the consequences of our behavior. Responsibility involves attributing success to our work and accepting failures or errors. If we make a mistake, we must rectify it and accept the punishment.

Moral Norms

A norm is a pattern that governs our behavior, a rule about how we should act. For... Continue reading "Freedom, Responsibility, and Moral Norms: A Philosophical View" »