Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Quest for Explanations: Beauty and Forces of Nature

The need to find explanations for the beauty of the cosmos and the forces of nature is a fundamental human drive. The inability to find appropriate responses can produce a confusion difficult to bear. To alleviate this anxiety and intellectual restlessness, the first explanations arose from mythology and religion. Nietzsche claimed that human beings preferred nothingness to a lack of belief, and any explanation was better than none.

Judeo-Christian Legend

These explanations appear in the Bible. This work tells that God created the earth in succession: the firmament, the seas, plants, stars, and finally, animals. His work culminated with the creation of man, who was in charge and master of... Continue reading "Origins of the Universe: From Mythology to Modern Science" »

The problem of reality and the problem of knowledge are intimately related; it is not possible to separate them. Plato argues that true knowledge must possess characteristics of objectivity and universality.

In his attempt to find the concepts or definitions of virtue as a basis for moral practice, Plato realized that the objects of sense perception are constantly changing (in a state of flux), and therefore these objects cannot be given a definition valid for all time. For this reason, science cannot be reduced to sensation, because science is objective, infallible, and universal knowledge. Plato does not accept that absolutely everything is subject to becoming, as the essence of things, i.e., the universal concept, escapes becoming.

Only the... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge" »

Moral Relativism

Moral relativism posits that ethical principles are not universal. What is considered right or good is determined within each particular group and applies only to that group. Moral choices are incomparable across different groups due to varying traditions. Concepts of fair, unfair, good, and bad are always group-dependent, making it impossible to establish universally valid principles.

Relativistic Skepticism

Relativistic skepticism asserts that the lack of a universal criterion for choosing between options makes it impossible to distinguish between right and wrong, just and unjust. Despite this, decisions must be made, and rational justifications may be sought.

Socratic Intellectualism

Socratic intellectualism, an ethical theory,... Continue reading "Moral Relativism, Skepticism, and Socratic Ethics" »

Descartes' Methodic Doubt and the Cogito

This text introduces the doubts René Descartes systematically applied to everything surrounding him. He questioned everything derived from our senses, the pronouncements of the wise, and even mathematical certainties. Descartes initially suspected that everything he had ever believed might be deceptive. He pondered: if God is infinitely good and powerful, why would He allow us to be deceived? Or perhaps, he speculated, we are deceived by some malicious entity or for some unknown reason.

However, Descartes explained that one thing cannot be doubted: the act of thinking itself. He famously concluded, "Cogito ergo sum" – if he thinks, then he must exist. From this certainty arises the correspondence between... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt, Mind, God, and Reality" »

From Myth to Logos: A Shift in Thinking

The transition from myth to logos signifies a fundamental shift in mindset: the capacity to conceive of myths yielded to the rational approach of Philosophy. This transformation in thinking unfolded in Greece during the Archaic period of its history (8th-6th centuries BCE). Throughout this era, certain individuals began to challenge both the mythical interpretations of reality and traditional mythical religion.

Mythical explanations of reality, presented as truths, gradually failed to satisfy human curiosity. Consequently, by the 6th century BCE, early philosophers emerged, who demanded objective testing and demonstration, essentially seeking rational explanations rather than narratives. The traditional... Continue reading "From Myth to Logos: The Rise of Rational Thought" »

The Body and Soul

Departing from the Pythagorean idea of the body as the soul's prison, St. Augustine, influenced by the incarnation of the Word, exalts the human body. Regarding the soul's origin, Augustine admits uncertainty between the prevailing theories of Tertullian's traducianism (parental generation) and St. Jerome's creationism. He believes, however, that the souls of Adam and Christ were divinely created.

The Soul and God

Central to Augustine's thought are the soul and God. Understanding humanity necessitates inquiring about God, as humanity is incomplete without God. The human soul, mirroring the Trinity, is also one and triune in its capacity for mind, knowledge, and love. "Therefore, the mind, its knowledge, and love are three,... Continue reading "St. Augustine's Philosophy of Soul and God" »

The Emergence of Philosophy in Ancient Greece

The appearance of philosophy in Greece coincided with a flourishing of trade and freedom of expression, particularly in relation to Egypt. The solar eclipse of 585 BC is often cited as a marker for the birth of philosophy.

Birth of Rational Discourse

The shift from Mythos to Logos (from myth to reason) marked the beginning of rational discourse focused on understanding the natural world.

• Egypt: Contributed writing, arithmetic, and astronomy.
• Greece: Focused on reflecting upon knowledge (filo-sofia).

Early Philosophers and Their Ideas

The first philosophers sought to understand the physical world using Logos, a rational approach to understanding things. They aimed to comprehend the natural world through... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Philosophy: Origins and Key Thinkers" »

Language in Communication

Language, an interpersonal communication system, serves three primary functions:

• Representative: Linguistic signs symbolize and represent states of affairs.
• Expressive: Linguistic signs manifest the speaker's internal states.
• Appellate: Linguistic signs act as signals, eliciting a reaction from the receiver.

Dimensions of Language

Words, as part of a linguistic code, form the basis of communication across all languages. Three core dimensions shape language:

• Syntactic: This dimension governs the relationships between signs. Syntactic rules dictate word order within phrases and sentences. For example, a sentence like "Transmit a dog does not bite me" is syntactically flawed.
• Semantic: This dimension concerns the relationship

Ethics

Ethics is an edge. Practicing it involves trafficking in human rights at the individual level.

Right is a capacity that humans have to freely choose between different possibilities, knowing the truth of something.

Freedom is a value that is synonymous with thinking and acting independently of any coercion. Freedom always supposes responsibility.

Disclaimer: This is a mean value of what we know to respond freely.

Morality: We have a set of rules that humans use to regulate their behavior and form their personality. For example: Friendship.

• Theoretical reason: "Things are like this" -> Science
• Practical reason: To make things sound! -> Ethics

Ethics: Interested in acts done by a subject with morality.

Values

Values are qualities that people... Continue reading "Ethical Principles and Values in Decision-Making" »