Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Common Good and the Individual

The principle of the Common Good states that the two subjects that constitute any social formation are, and should be, the protagonists of life in coexistence. They have to guide each other to do their respective part towards the same goal: the common good of the group. This is the set of conditions of social life that allow associations and each of their members to achieve self-perfection more fully and easily. The importance lies with the person forever. There are three key areas to its content: respect for the individual, social welfare and development, and stability and security. It is the responsibility of both the authority and the social body.

Marriage as a Human Expression of Love

Marriage is a fully human... Continue reading "Humanity, Marriage, and the Natural World: Key Principles" »

Democracy and Political Issues

Notes on Democracy:

• True: line 7
• False: lines 13 and 15
• True: lines 17, 18, 19

Vocabulary:

Brief:

ant. A lot

Pondering:

syn. think about

Simply:

syn. Just

Phrases/Questions:

1. Hadn't seen
2. Did you know
3. Has left a lot of money
4. Can't believe
5. To be true
6. You can spend
7. Did she tell you

Dialogue Snippets:

• 1: Hi, I'm John and this is my boyfriend Peter. Nice to meet you.
• 3: How much does the phone cost?
• 4: I advise you not to fence in your house; it is good to be alone. You get bored, besides the best is the mother company, helps you in good times and bad times.
• 5: Hi, I'm a little fat and I would like you to tell me what exercises to do to burn calories and a diet low in fat.

Political Commentary:

Politicians of today do not fight for the democracy... Continue reading "Perspectives on Society: Politics, Health, Conflict" »

Essential Sources for Journalistic Reporting

Effective journalistic reporting relies on a diverse range of information sources to ensure accuracy, depth, and credibility. Below are key categories of sources utilized by reporters:

• Direct Observation

  When a reporter is physically present at the event's location, the initial information is gathered directly from what is seen and experienced firsthand.

• Interviews with Individuals

  Although seemingly obvious, it is indispensable to speak with the key players or protagonists involved in an event. There may be more than one central figure whose perspective is crucial.

• Telephone Interviews

  It is often impractical to conduct face-to-face interviews with every person who can provide information on an event or

Individual Perspectives and the Universe

Individual perspectives are true: each view provides a critical perspective on the universe. These perspectives do not exclude one another; rather, they are complementary.

Ratiovitalism (1923–1955)

In The Theme of Our Time (1923), Ortega y Gasset sought to secede from the currents of life, specifically the irrationalism proposed by Nietzsche. He argued that it makes no sense to reject human reason simply because it is immersed in life. Ortega famously stated that "thinking is a vital function." He posits that reason does not mean life must be set aside; rather, reason is intrinsic to life. This leads to ratiovitalism, or vital reason, which stands in opposition to the pure reason of traditional rationalism,... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset: Vital Reason and Historical Perspective" »

Nietzsche's philosophy begins with the cultural diagnosis of nihilism. This nihilism is the historical event that Nietzsche called the "death of God."

From Socrates and Plato onward, the Western tradition understood that true reality, the source of meaning and intelligibility, lies in a parallel world. For Plato, this is the world of forms, and Christianity, as the heir of Platonism, calls it the "beyond."

This world of forms, or the "beyond," acted as a standard and measure of truth and goodness, the source of all that is true and good in the world. According to Nietzsche, modernity has brought about a progressive destruction of that order that gave meaning to the supersensible reality from Plato. Modern science has rendered any concept of God... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Nihilism, Death of God, and the Superman" »

David Hume's Theory of Knowledge

Elements of knowledge: The elements of knowledge for Hume are impressions and ideas. These are the contents of consciousness, defined as anything that may be present within the human mind, whether through our senses or the exercise of our thought and reflection.

• Impressions are those perceptions that are presented to the mind with greater force and vivacity.
• Ideas are the result of an operation of the mind on the data previously obtained through impressions. They are images of the impressions that we retain in our minds to remember or think about them.

Critique of Descartes and Rationalism

Critique of the Principle of Causality

Hume provides a deep critique of the concept of causality. He argues that we can only know... Continue reading "David Hume: Empiricism and the Limits of Human Reason" »

Kant's Critique of Traditional Metaphysics

Kant conceives of traditional metaphysics as dogmatic speculation, unsubstantiated and false wisdom, founded only in analytic judgments. This widespread practice seeks truth by considering subjective and objective factors. Kant questions how metaphysical claims are possible. For Kant, the existence of metaphysics as a science (ciencia) depends on certain requirements. All scientific knowledge must expand our understanding and be universal, such that everyone can share in its consensus without doubt or differences. Metaphysical principles and presuppositions do not meet these requirements, as they are founded on analytic judgments that are necessary but do not contribute anything new to knowledge. Metaphysics... Continue reading "Kant's Critique of Metaphysics: Synthetic A Priori Knowledge" »

Kant's Philosophy

Between these two categories, there are two wrecks: Hume's substance and the cause. Categories are given legitimate application to phenomena based on perceptions and lose that legitimacy when we endeavor to apply them to non-empirical or supersensible realities.

Kant again emphasizes the difference between phenomenon and thing in itself.

Kant goes on to show that metaphysics cannot be a science because it lacks the empirical conditions. This is because it looks at God, spirit, and matter (the universe).

The Moral Principles of the Law

Reason is the faculty of reasoning. An argument is a chain of trials. To link the early trials, they are needed. The only way to relate judgments is by linking all trials, each in turn belonging to... Continue reading "Kant's Philosophy: Categories, Metaphysics, and Moral Principles" »

Plato's Ethical Conception of Mathematical Ideas

In The Republic, Plato presents an ethical conception of mathematical ideas. He posits that mathematical ideas exist, and since mathematics is considered a form of rational knowledge, it must have a purpose. This aligns with the existence of ethical ideas, or value-ideas (goodness, beauty, value), which are objects of philosophical knowledge. Plato believed that ideas are interconnected through the idea of property. The idea of good serves as both a cause and a final cause. By introducing a final cause, Plato breaks from the previous mechanistic view and opens the door to a teleological explanation of the world, later developed by Aristotle. This perspective suggests that everything that exists... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ethics, Politics, and the Ideal State" »

Critique of Pure Reason

Distinguishes two things: the theoretical use and the practical use of reason (metaphysics and ethics). When called pure reason, it refers to reason that is not mixed with anything empirical, which is a priori. Regarding the possibility of metaphysics as a science, Kant stated: "I had to suppress the knowledge to make room for faith."

The conclusion of Kant's metaphysics is that he is agnostic, but he supports the postulates of practical reason: God, Freedom, and Immortality.

Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals

This work focuses on ethics, but above all, the triple formulation of the categorical imperative:

1. "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."