Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nature and Culture

The actions we, as human beings, take are part of two aspects of nature: one that is inherent and another that is cultural. Cultural components are the result of learning.

Nature

Nature is innate; it is what we are born with because it is genetically preprogrammed or develops in the embryo.

Culture

Culture is acquired through social learning from the moment we are born.

Evolution

Evolution is the process whereby individuals of the same species undergo qualitative changes, leading the species to slowly change from more primitive life forms into more organized ones. The result has been the multiplicity of species.

Theory of Evolution

Natural selection is not a conscious process, but rather nature acts blindly. Variations arise randomly.... Continue reading "Nature, Culture, and Human Evolution: A Deep Dive" »

Immanuel Kant: Convergence of Rationalism and Empiricism

Kant is a crossroads thinker in whom two streams converge: Modern Rationalism and Empiricism.

I. Approaching the Problem of Knowledge

• 1.1 Knowledge and the Subject: Transcendental Idealism
• 1.2 Metaphysics as a Science: Is it possible?
• 1.3 Limits of Knowledge: What can I know? (Principles and limits of knowledge). What are the conditions for the possibility of science?
• 1.4 Classification of Judgments: Which judgments advance science?
• 1.5 Apperception of Reality: The Phenomenon and the Noumenon.

II. Critique of Pure Reason

(Critical examination of the faculties of knowledge and the use of pure reason)

2.1 Transcendental Aesthetic

1. The Sensitivity (The First Faculty of Knowledge):
   • Matter of Knowledge:

Saint Augustine's Philosophy: God and the Search for Truth

The central issue of highest concern to Saint Augustine is the philosophical subject of God. God's existence is a theological truth, serving not only as the foundation of knowledge but also as the ultimate end toward which human life is directed. Saint Augustine argues that we find God inside the human being. This internal search directs us to eternal truths, which, in turn, lead to the demonstration of God's existence.

The basis of such immutable truths cannot reside in changing created things but must be found in an eternal and immutable being—that is, in God.

Theory of Knowledge and Christian Wisdom

In his theory of knowledge, the philosopher is concerned with establishing the conditions... Continue reading "God, Truth, and Free Will in Augustinian Philosophy" »

Karl Marx's Philosophy

Marxism is a philosophy of society and history that stands in contrast to idealist philosophy. It posits that human beings are integral parts of nature, driven by the need to meet their requirements. Consequently, social and cultural life is shaped by the material conditions of the environment in which people live, making it a materialistic philosophy.

Marx proposed a theory of historical and social evolution based on materialism and dialectics. He argued that material or economic conditions give rise to relationships and human thought. Historical and social evolution is dialectical, characterized by the struggle between capitalism and the proletariat—the class struggle.

The human being is defined by its relationship with... Continue reading "Marxism vs. Nietzsche: Materialism, Will to Power, and Value Revaluation" »

Understanding Work-Related Injuries

A Work Injury is any physical injury that workers suffer in connection with, or resulting from, work performed for third parties. Therefore, there are three elements of a work-related accident:

1. Paid employment
2. Injury
3. Causal link between work and injury

The injury has traditionally been interpreted comprehensively as any physical or physiological impairment that affects functional development. This encompasses not only injuries caused by an external agent but also those due to internal causes.

This includes injuries resulting from certain diseases. Common diseases caused by work are known as occupational diseases, and pre-existing defects or diseases can be aggravated by an accident.

The requirement of a causal link... Continue reading "Understanding Work-Related Injuries: A Detailed Analysis" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics and Language

Nietzsche's critique of metaphysics involves a static interpretation of being, which he argues strips away the essence of change and becoming. This criticism stems from the German philosopher's view on conceptual knowledge.

Critique of Conceptual Genesis

Platonism and Reification

Nietzsche's first complaint targets a certain Platonism in the genesis and formation of concepts. This has led to the reification and substantification of concepts. Concepts, once created to refer to original experiences or familiarity, have, over time, become substances themselves. They acquire independent life, surpassing the real life they initially attempted to reflect.

Abstraction and Universal Representation

Furthermore,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's View on Concepts and Reality" »

Freedom and Responsibility

In ancient times, freedom was understood as the ability of humans to act despite the constraints that nature imposed. Humans are free but may require responsibility for their actions. Then, freedom was a divine law. In modern times, freedom is a consequence of accountability. Individual freedom is the foundation of modern political and economic forms, and self-choice human beings have by right.

Ethics and Morality

Morality is related to action, while ethics is the reflection on morality. They have a relationship but are distinct. Morality deals with the set of rules and customs that are accepted as appropriate in one place. Ethics is a critical view of morality, rules, and consequences resulting from human action. It... Continue reading "Freedom, Ethics, and Morality: A Deep Dive" »

René Descartes: A Philosophical Pioneer

Early Life and Education

René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye, Touraine, France. He grew up in a family of minor nobility, the third son of Joachim Descartes and Jeanne Brochard, a lawyer, who died when he was a year old.

He trained at the Jesuit college of La Flèche between 1606 and 1614, where he studied the science and philosophy of his era. He then began his law studies at the University of Poitiers. In 1618, he began serving as a volunteer in the army of Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, and in 1619, for the Duke of Bavaria. However, he soon left his military career to pursue philosophy, his true vocation.

Later Life and Demise

In 1628, Descartes traveled to Holland, where he lived... Continue reading "René Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Enduring Legacy" »

Hume's Empiricism: Rejecting Innatism

David Hume's philosophy defends the view that all contents of the mind are derived from experience, leading him to reject innatism.

Hume's Theory of Perceptions

Perceptions are the contents of our mind and can be divided into two major classes:

• Impressions

  Impressions are the immediate, vivid data of experience, irreducible and basic. They are strong perceptions received through the senses.

  • Simple Impressions

    These are feelings that come directly to our understanding and cannot be decomposed into parts.

  • Complex Impressions

    Complex impressions are combinations of simple impressions, but derived from simple ideas.

• Ideas

  Ideas are copies of impressions in our minds. They are weaker perceptions.

  • Simple Ideas

    These are ideas

Ethical Theories and Moral Philosophies

Classical Ethical Theories: Socrates

Socrates laid foundational groundwork for Western ethical thought, emphasizing virtue and moral reasoning.

Eudaimonism: Aristotle's Pursuit of Flourishing

Aristotle championed Eudaimonism, a philosophy centered on achieving human flourishing or well-being. He believed that the ultimate goal of human life is to live well and do well, which leads to happiness.

Hedonism: The Pursuit of Pleasure

Derived from the Greek word "hedone" (pleasure), Hedonism posits that the primary goal of life is to obtain pleasure. Epicurus (Hellenistic period) argued that pleasure is a natural criterion for what is good and desirable, advocating for a life of moderate pleasures and tranquility.... Continue reading "Foundational Ethical Theories and Philosophical Anthropology" »