Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Spanish Enlightenment: Education as the Cornerstone of Progress

Antecedents

Francis Bacon and Empiricism

The basis of Empiricism is that our knowledge comes from experience. It does not come from the principles and dogmas of authorities. Bacon wrote The New Atlantis, a utopia based on the practice of the new science of the House of Salomon.

René Descartes and Rationalism

Born in France, he passed away in Sweden. "I think, therefore I am." The "mind" or "reason" was the main source of truth. Only facts that are clear to the mind are true (rationalism). As a result, the "rational ethic" appeared.

Isaac Newton

He was English. His Universal Law of Gravitation, published in 1687, changed the conception of the Universe. The world can be explained through... Continue reading "Spanish Enlightenment: Education and Societal Transformation Under Charles III" »

The Four Types of Poverty

• Material poverty
• Poverty of soul
• Poverty of spirit
• Poverty of addiction

Four Causes of Hunger

• Corruption
• Foreign loans
• Land degradation
• Politics

Three Levels of Subsidiarity

• State
• Parish/County
• Community

Three Abortion Methods

• Abortifacient drugs
• Suction aspiration
• Salt poisoning

Eight Fundamental Rights

1. Right to life
2. Moral and cultural rights
3. Right to worship
4. Right to choose one's state of life
5. Economic rights
6. Right to meet and associate
7. Right to immigrate
8. Political rights

Key Definitions

Equality

In theology, the dignity of each human in comparison to all other humans.

Personalistic Norm

The principle that maintains that a person is to be treated as a unique individual and never as a means to another's end.

Subsidium

Meaning "give help"; an attitude... Continue reading "Foundations of Catholic Social Teaching and Human Rights" »

Key Business Decision-Making Terms

• Consultation

  A discussion where different expert opinions are heard before a decision is made.

• Confrontation

  An argument or open conflict.

• Concession

  Something you agree to accept or do in order to reach an agreement or end an argument.

• Compromise

  An agreement where you get part of what you want.

• Consensus

  General agreement between a group of people.

• Hierarchy

  The power and decision-making structure of an organization.

• Brainstorm

  To generate ideas imaginatively and energetically.

• Put Forward

  To present or propose.

• Options

  Choices or alternatives.

• Backing

  Support or approval.

• Majority

  Most of the people.

• In Favor Of

  Supporting, not against.

• Go For

  To choose.

• Carry Out

  To perform or execute.

Match Verbs to Nouns: Business Phrases

Match the... Continue reading "Mastering Business Communication: Essential Terms & Exercises" »

David Hume's Sentimentalism

The Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) is one of the most representative philosophers of the philosophical current known as empiricism. Empiricism prioritizes the role of observation and sensitive experimentation against reason in both science and general thought.

Hume's Ethical Theory

From the point of view of ethics, Hume undertook a study of morality that changed the prevailing rationalist perspective in previous philosophies. He focused more on emotions, passions, and feelings as the foundation of the moral life; therefore, we speak of "sentimentalism" in Hume.

Morality as Experience

According to Hume's ethical theory, morality is a kind of experience clearly different from logical-mathematical or merely... Continue reading "David Hume's Sentimentalism: Ethics and Emotions" »

Durkheim's View on Religion's Social Role

Religion provided meaning in life, authority figures, and most importantly for Durkheim, it reinforced the morals and social norms held collectively by all within a society. Far from dismissing religion as mere fantasy, despite its natural origin, Durkheim saw it as a critical part of the social system.

Religion serves several vital social functions:

• Social Control: Guiding behavior and maintaining order.
• Cohesion: Uniting individuals through shared beliefs and practices.
• Purpose: Providing individuals with a sense of meaning and direction.
• Communication and Gathering: Offering a means for individuals to interact and reaffirm social norms.

The Sacred and the Profane: Durkheim's Distinction

Durkheim's second... Continue reading "Durkheim's Sociology of Religion: Sacred, Profane, and Social Cohesion" »

Qualities of a Good Negotiator

Knowledge

Understand the other party's needs and perspectives.

Communication

Clearly state your desired outcome from the start. Pay attention to both verbal and non-verbal communication, including voice and body language. Avoid aggressive behavior.

Confidence and Listening

Project self-confidence and practice active listening to understand the other party's point of view.

Types of Negotiation

Win-Win

Both sides benefit, leading to voluntarily accepted resolutions. Integrative bargaining aims for win-win outcomes through cooperation.

Win-Lose

Only one side perceives the outcome as positive, making voluntary acceptance less likely.

Lose-Lose

All parties end up worse off.

Negotiation Advice

• Strive for win-win outcomes.
• Maintain

Reflections on Dr. Mario Sergio's Insights

In a compelling video, Dr. Mario Sergio discussed the crucial relationship between ethics and coexistence in a society. He highlighted that our generation faces a significant ethical deficit. Dr. Sergio emphasized that ethics is the "aesthetics of our inner selves," cultivated through discipline and a clear understanding of right and wrong. This ethical foundation, he argued, must be established during childhood.

The Importance of Early Ethical Education

Dr. Sergio quoted a popular saying: "The world we leave to our children depends heavily on the children we leave to this world." This underscores the need to instill strong values and ethical principles in our youth. He referenced the letters of the Apostle... Continue reading "Ethics and Social Harmony: Cultivating a Better Future" »

A human action can be considered as a moral action whether it has the following characteristics:

1. It is done by adjusting to a code or a set of moral rules and values. These rules and values designate what should be considered as morally good or bad, advisable or inadvisable, etc. In the next section we will study what the moral values and rules are.
2. This moral code should not be imposed by the society to the people, but each individual must be free to choose it. For example, I must be free to choose whether or not euthanasia is something acceptable from a moral point of view. For this reason, morality is above all an individual matter related to the autonomy of each person.
3. Being free when acting is something extremely important when assessing

Cultural Relativism

A. One common moral theory covered by Gensler is Cultural Relativism. Many people fall back on this position when confronted about ethical dilemmas. Define “good” according to Cultural Relativism (2 pts.). Explain how someone would employ Cultural Relativism in addressing an ethical dilemma by giving a concrete example (3 pts.). Gensler presents several counterarguments against Cultural Relativism, however. Present one of those arguments in detail as you understand it (5 pts.).

Definition of 'Good' (2 pts.)

1. According to Cultural Relativism, “good” is what is socially approved.

Concrete Example (3 pts.)

2. Concrete example = My girlfriend and I want to move in together but my parents are very religious and don’t believe... Continue reading "Cultural Relativism & Subjectivism: Definitions, Examples, Objections" »

S173 CA 2006: Duty to Exercise Independent Judgment

Under Section 173 of the Companies Act 2006, directors must exercise independent judgment. A primary authority for this is Fulham Football Club v Cabra Estates.

S174 CA 2006: Duty of Reasonable Care and Skill

This duty is divided into an objective test and a subjective test:

• Objective Test: The relevant skills and experience expected of an ordinary director.
• Subjective Test: The relevant skills and experience expected of that particular director.

Key cases include Re Brazilian Rubber Plantation and Re Denham.

S175 CA 2006: Duty to Avoid Conflicts of Interest

Directors are under a duty to avoid relevant conflicts of interest. This principle was examined in Aberdeen Railway v Blaikie Brothers.

Aberdeen