Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Evolution of the Spanish Essay: From the 19th Century to Democracy

The delicate political and economic situation that dominated the 19th century led into the 20th with a constant concern for the state of Spain. The proposed regeneration went hand in hand with the country, and in their writings, authors discussed the most pressing problems of the moment and postulated practical solutions. However, it was not only the Regenerationists who were concerned about the crisis of the century. In the essays of the Generation of '98, we also see spiritual concerns and anxiety about the meaning of life, fear of death, or the desire for immortality (Unamuno), political commentary from patriotic intellectuals and anarchists, charged with autobiographical... Continue reading "Spanish Essayists: 19th Century to Democracy" »

Hume: Treatise on Human Nature and Human Understanding

*Treatise on Human Nature* as the "Newton of Moral Science"

Treatise on Human Nature is considered as the "Newton of Moral Science." It intends to apply the Newtonian method to moral issues, i.e., the science of man. It aims to unify all the sciences to examine and understand the extent of the forces of human agency and explain the nature of ideas and arguments. From the empirical standpoint, the most important work is the laws of association of ideas.

*An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding*

In *An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding*, Hume abandons the idea of creating a science of man and leaves the Newtonian method. He focuses on an analysis of human understanding and has a strong... Continue reading "Hume's Philosophy: Understanding Human Knowledge" »

Marx's Historical Materialism: Origins & Influences

The idea of historical materialism, developed by Marx, was conceived early in his readings of Feuerbach and Hegel. Feuerbach was seen as a crucial founder of the materialist conception, influencing the path Marx identified. Hegel, on the other hand, interested Marx with his historical conception of human essence, according to which the human being becomes itself through labor. Marx found these statements rather complicated and needed to adapt them. Hegelian dialectics was not something abstract, but Feuerbach's materialism, while important, could not explain the human being at work and within a given society without a historical dimension.

The work done in *The German Ideology* by Marx and... Continue reading "Marx's Historical Materialism: Origins and Core Concepts" »

Eudaemonism: The Pursuit of the Good Life

Eudaemonism, a central concept in ancient Greek philosophy, posits that human well-being and flourishing (eudaimonia) are the highest good and the aim of moral thought and conduct. This pursuit of the good life was explored by prominent philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, each offering unique perspectives on how individuals can achieve true happiness and virtue.

Socrates on Objective Knowledge of Good

Socrates believed that objective knowledge of good is possible and universally applicable. He argued that the idea of "good" is inherent within humanity; one merely needs to bring these innate ideas to light. According to Socrates:

• One cannot live well without knowing what is good, as it is

Arguments in Favor

This issue sparks debate. Notably, there's a compelling argument for it. Another point supporting this stance is... Furthermore, one aspect of this issue is... The main advantage is... Another point in favor is...

Arguments Against

On the other hand, there are counterarguments. The primary drawback is... Another point against it is... I am convinced that... It's important to remember that... It's crucial. It's vital. With this in mind, I believe that...

Personal Perspective

In my point of view, I would say that... I strongly believe that...

Conclusion

In conclusion, considering all perspectives, it's essential to weigh the pros and cons carefully.

The First Truth: Cogito

From that universal doubt appears the first truth and certainty. The first base of Cartesian philosophy is: "I think, therefore I am." The cogito is not an argument, but an intuition.

Try to explain rationally the universe, i.e., to explain in terms of man, according to me. It was therefore necessary to start by defining the man, the self, and defining it so that in him were enough elements to build a world system.

The cogito is an act of the subject because I'm the one who thinks.

The ideas represent an inevitable mediation between the thinker and things.

Three Types of Ideas

• Innate: The understanding that has by nature: thought, God.
• Adventitious: Those who come from outside expertise.
• Artificial: Those coming from our imagination.

Justice, Law, and Economic Inequality

A free and democratic state relies on the regulation of relationships between people by law. Justice, in turn, is founded on compliance with these state-sanctioned laws. One fundamental principle in many democratic states is the right of individuals to own property and accumulate wealth, provided they adhere to legal frameworks. This right, however, often leads to the existence of groups with greater wealth than others, creating economic inequality among citizens, which can challenge the state's commitment to justice.

Individual vs. Social Justice Models

In contrast to this individualistic model of justice, some thinkers propose a model of social justice, arguing that social and economic inequalities are inherently... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Critique: Capitalism, Inequality, and Social Justice" »

Understanding Conflict

• A clash of positions arising among individuals or groups because one party's behavior hinders the attainment of another's objectives.
• Generated between two parties: individuals or groups.
• It is a struggle for position; each party seeks to advance its own stance.

Collective Conflict

• Occurs between a company's workforce (as a whole) and the company itself.
• Typically concerns general discrepancies, such as working conditions or general employee interests.
• The resolution affects all involved parties collectively.
• Resolved by representatives of the parties through negotiation, arbitration, or court proceedings.
• Legal pressure methods are commonly used.

Individual Conflict

• Occurs between an employer/manager and an individual employee.

Plato's Theory of Ideas

Plato's theory of ideas affirms the absolute and independent existence of immaterial entities that are unchanging and universal. These ideas constitute a perfect, eternal, and hierarchical world. At its peak is the idea of the Good, which is both the cause and purpose of all other ideas. Knowledge of this order is available to few – the philosophers – hence Plato's proposal that they should govern.

Plato describes a sensible world modeled by a demiurge who seeks to imitate the world of ideas, though matter prevents it from achieving perfection.

Theory of Knowledge: Reminiscence

Plato's doctrine of knowledge, called reminiscence, posits that humans consist of body and soul. The soul is immortal and belongs to the world... Continue reading "Understanding Plato's Theory of Ideas, Knowledge, and Ethics" »

Nietzsche's Core Philosophical Concepts

Nietzsche's Engagement with Kant and Hegel

Nietzsche's philosophy emerged from a complex intellectual landscape, engaging deeply with the ideas of his predecessors. While not a direct follower, his thought critically responded to the legacies of figures like Kant and Hegel.

• Hegel's Dialectic and Reality: Hegel famously posited that "Everything real is rational, and everything rational is real." This concept suggests that all historical and social developments occur because they are inherently logical and necessary.
• Hegelian Streams: From Hegel's philosophy, three main intellectual currents emerged:
  1. Conservative Hegelianism: This branch, often associated with the "end of history" thesis, saw the capitalist