Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

To the rationalist, metaphysics was the body of knowledge to which man can reach by his own lights, sound as a carrier of these ideas since birth. These innate ideas are embedded in humans and can be discovered without the help of experience, just by thinking. For rationalists, the metaphysical has to develop and organize the rest of knowledge, based on innate and obvious truths.

For the empiricist, all knowledge comes from outside, from what our senses pick up. So for them, there are no innate ideas, but a mind, initially 'virgin', in which experience is typed. They denied any possibility of metaphysics, and dogmatism and moral consequences are derived from all of this. In denying the metaphysical, everything is reduced... Continue reading "Kant's Critical Philosophy: Bridging Rationalism and Empiricism" »

Descartes' Philosophical Context and Major Works

Animals are capable of carnal love, and we were like trees, sensitive beings. If objects could not love, anything that has movement and feeling could. But as we are men, created in the image of our Creator, who is the eternal truth, eternal and true love, we are able to return there in the triple form of human nature, as the image of God. "I am, I know, I want to be."

René Descartes was born in 1596. He studied at the Jesuit college of La Flèche. After graduation, he decided to learn from the "great book of the world." In 1619, he embarked on a search for truth through the use of reason. His most important works are:

• Rules for the Direction of the Spirit: An unfinished work containing twenty-one

1. Descartes' Methodical Doubt

Overcoming Doubt

Descartes' methodical doubt, unlike radical skepticism, is provisional. The goal is to find a truth that is undeniable.

The Purpose

Descartes' method begins with a diagnosis applied to the era. Humanity is like a sick man who must free himself from his sickness. Descartes decides that the path to truth must undergo a destructive critique of everything we know with certainty.

The Method

Descartes' method is like having faith in critique. It is a seemingly impossible task. He asks skeptical questions, directly attacking the foundations of our knowledge. He applies skepticism to doubt our senses and reason.

1.1 First Argument: Senses and Reason

We cannot trust our senses because they often deceive us (e.... Continue reading "Methodical Doubt in Descartes' Philosophy" »

Ethics: Definition and Etymology

Ethics originates from the Greek ethos, referring to character and various aspects of decision-making and responsibility. It is a branch of philosophy that determines the concept of good and evil within specific cultural contexts to improve practical existence. Ethics analyzes the moral life of humans, teaching how to live well and focusing on preferences. It justifies our actions, choices, and behavior, underlying our morality. In essence, ethics and moral philosophy examine human life situations, justify human choices, forge character, and provide living standards.

Morality: Definition and Etymology

The word moral has its roots in the Latin word mos, meaning 'custom' or 'usual'. The moral universe is defined... Continue reading "Ethics and Morality: Principles and Philosophical Traditions" »

Descartes' View of Mind and Body

Descartes' anthropology presents man as a composite of two distinct substances: res cogitans (the thinking substance or soul) and res extensa (the extended substance or body). These substances are considered independent and autonomous.

The Mind-Body Problem

Two important questions arise from this dualism: how do these substances relate, and how do they communicate? Their relationship is undeniable: when the soul gives orders, the body obeys. Descartes' duality of man is a direct result of his metaphysical dualism.

Since the understanding has a clear and distinct idea of thinking substance and a clear and distinct idea of extended substance, it is evident that these are two different, independent substances. This... Continue reading "Descartes: Mind, Body, and Reality" »

Nietzsche's Stages

Context: Three Phases

Youth/Romantic Period

During his youth, Nietzsche studied Greek culture and was influenced by Wagner's music and Schopenhauer's pessimism. This period deals with pre-Socratics like Heraclitus, emphasizing tragic thinkers, intellectual solitude, and a lucid approach. He critically examined Socrates, viewing moral reasoning as resentment and hatred towards life.

Transitional Period

In this non-positivist phase, Nietzsche draws upon experimental sciences to challenge the romantic values he previously held. This transforms him into a free spirit, opposing his former mentors.

Maturity Period

Nietzsche expounds on key themes like eternal recurrence, the death of God, and the superman. He strongly criticizes the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: A Critique of Western Culture" »

Theory of Knowledge

The Sophists claimed that words were meaningless. However, Socrates and Plato argued against this. In Plato's dialogues, the spoken word was considered a convention, suggesting that things are named arbitrarily. This raised the question of how language originated.

Another theory explored the essence of things, proposing that names should reflect the inherent nature of objects. However, this theory faced challenges due to the existence of different languages.

The third theory, selection intelligible, posits that there are degrees of knowledge. Plato illustrated this with the "allegory of the segmented line," dividing knowledge into two realms: Doxa and Episteme.

Doxa encompasses assumptions and expert opinions about physical... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge: Ideas, Soul, and Reminiscence" »

Key Concepts in Justice

• Synthesis: Summary
• Human Rights: Rights inherent to all human beings
• Rule of Law: All people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law
• Procedural Guarantees: Protections entitling a person to a fair trial and punishment
• Abolition: Elimination
• Impartiality: Not sacrificing justice for personal interests
• Means of Coercion: Means used to ensure justice is not sacrificed for personal interests
• Federation of Free States: A type of political organization in which each state cedes part of its sovereignty to a federal government
• Cosmopolitan Right: A set of rules allowing for socially and ecologically responsible economic development by the state

Political and Ethical Theories

• Liberalism

  This theory promotes civil liberties