Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Sophists: Rhetoric, Arete, and Fifth-Century Athens

The Sophists were itinerant professional teachers and intellectuals who frequented Athens and other Greek cities in the second half of the fifth century BC.

Sophistic Education and the Concept of Arete

In return for a fee, the Sophists offered young wealthy Greek men an education in arete (excellence).

Initially, arete was predominantly associated with aristocratic warrior virtues such as courage and physical strength. However, arete was increasingly understood in terms of the ability to influence one's fellow citizens in political gatherings through rhetorical persuasion.

The Sophistic education both grew out of and exploited this shift. The Sophists answered a growing need among the young... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Sophists: Rhetoric, Skepticism, and Key Philosophical Concepts" »

The political system is the set of rules and institutions that regulate the functioning of a society as a whole. The form of these institutions and the rules governing them vary directly with the economic structure that serves as their basis. According to Marx, in class societies, the State is an instrument at the service of the dominant classes who control the means of production.

The Ideological Superstructure

Refers to a set of religious, philosophical, economic, moral, or political representations that people maintain or develop at a time and within a given society. Its purpose is to ensure certain relationships between people and legitimize their living conditions. This ideology has two uses:

• Regarding the exploited, ideology makes them accept

Monotheism

Religious belief that affirms the existence of only one God.

Multiculturalism

Cultural phenomenon that involves the coexistence of cultural groups, which have very different origins, within the same society.

Myth

Story that incorporates elements of fantasy to explain the origin of a natural or social reality.

Objective Knowledge

Knowledge of reality as it really is, without being compromised or distorted by subjective knowledge.

Pantheism

Philosophical doctrine that involves identifying God with nature. It affirms the divine nature of reality in its entirety. It can, therefore, be considered to be a form of monism. This concept was notably explored by philosopher Baruch Spinoza.

Person

Individual substance of rational nature. Roman philosopher... Continue reading "Glossary of Philosophical and Cultural Terms" »

Essential Vocabulary: F and G Terms

F Words

Façade

The false front or misleading appearance of anything.

Facet

Any of the flat, polished surfaces of a cut gem.

Fallacy

A false notion or belief.

Fathom

To understand.

Faux

False.

Fawn

To exhibit affection; to seek favor through flattery.

Feign

To make false representation of.

Fester

To generate pus.

Fetish

An object of obsessive reverence, attention, or interest.

Fiasco

A complete failure or disaster.

Fiat

An arbitrary decree or order.

Fickle

Likely to change for no good reason.

Figment

Something made up or invented; a fabrication.

Fiscal

Pertaining to financial matters.

Fledgling

Inexperienced or immature.

Flippant

Frivolously disrespectful.

Florid

Ruddy; flushed; red-faced.

Fodder

Coarse food for livestock.

Folly

Foolishness; insanity;... Continue reading "Advanced Vocabulary List: Definitions for F and G Terms" »

The Principle of Solidarity

We are all responsible for helping others, protecting and caring for vulnerable people. If we practiced generosity, there might not be a need for the extensive welfare systems we have. Solidarity particularly highlights the intrinsic social nature of the human person, the equality of all in dignity and rights, and the common path of individuals and peoples towards an ever more committed unity. Solidarity represents a moral value to pursue the common good and social virtue, aiming to achieve justice.

The Principle of Subsidiarity

Governments should not intervene in problems that can be resolved effectively by families or lower-level associations. The State has a role of guidance and protection; it should be at the service... Continue reading "Solidarity, Subsidiarity, and Social Justice Principles" »

1. What does Julia believe about the rocket bombs that has never occurred to Winston before? Julia believes the rocket bombs are deployed by the government of Oceania against its own citizens.

1. What does Winston argue about with Julia and eventually convince her of? Winston argues with Julia and eventually convinces her of the fact that Oceania was at war with Eastasia, not Eurasia, until four years ago.

1. What does Winston tell Julia that she thinks is “brilliantly witty”? Winston tells Julia that she is “only a rebel from the waist downwards.”

1. On whom does Winston think the Party is most successful in imposing its worldview? Winston thinks the Party is most successful in imposing its worldview on people who are unable to actually understand

Fetal Personhood and Abortion: A Comparative Analysis

Mary Anne Warren's Criteria for Personhood

Mary Anne Warren would likely argue that a six-week-old fetus does not meet the criteria for personhood. She outlines five conditions necessary for an entity to be considered a person:

1. Consciousness and the capacity to feel pain.
2. Reasoning ability.
3. Capacity for self-motivated activity.
4. Ability to communicate.
5. Self-awareness and self-concepts.

According to Warren, if a fetus does not fulfill all five conditions, it cannot be considered a person. Therefore, she would likely support the permissibility of abortion in this case.

George and Lee's Argument for Fetal Moral Status

In contrast, George and Lee would argue that abortion is morally wrong because it involves... Continue reading "Fetal Personhood and Abortion: A Comparative Analysis of Warren, George, and Lee" »

Chapter 1
What are some of the reasons the world is increasingly threatening, according to Paul and Elder? (p. 3)
A world in which national mass media gain more and more power over the minds of people.
A world in which increasing numbers of civilians find themselves trapped in the crossfire of warring groups and ideologies.
A world in which privacy is increasingly penetrated by multiple invasive technologies: face-recognition software, DNA testing, e-mail review systems, credit card tracking, and auto-tracking systems.
Why is a complex world a problem for critical thinking? (p. 6)
Much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or downright prejudiced. Critical thinking begins, then, when we start thinking about... Continue reading "Concepts of educations" »