Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Structure of the Ways

The tracks are five formulations with a common scheme in four steps: a fact of experience, the application of the principle of causality, the impossibility of an infinite causal process, and the term of the causal process.

1st: Starting from a fact of experience, movement, understood as the passage from potency to act, the application of the principle of causality leads to the conclusion that nothing can be both mobile and motor simultaneously. "Everything that is moved is moved by another."

2nd: In the world of the senses, there are efficient causes, which are subordinate to each other to produce effects (for the birth of a tree requires land, water, electricity, etc.). Nothing can... Continue reading "Aquinas' Five Ways: Demonstrating God's Existence" »

Understanding Key Concepts and Their Synonyms

1. Attributes

Fitness, property, power, ability, character

2. Temperance

Moderation, frugality, prudence, sobriety

3. Testimony

Declaration, revelation, assertion

4. Praise

Flattery, apologetics, exaggeration, exaltation

5. Inhibition

Inhibit, restrain, coerce, refrain, stop, withdraw

6. Premise

Hypothesis, proposition, history, idea

7. Peculiarities

Peculiarity, property, uniqueness, ownership

8. Entity

Being, individual, subject, essence, substance, nature

9. Purge

Evacuate, expel, laxar, medicine, atone for, suffer, pay

10. Contribute

Cooperate, collaborate, assist, subsidize, pay

11. Essence

Nature, substance, existence, character, property

12. Incur

To influence, make, earn, win, draw, fall

13. Avidity

Craving, desire,... Continue reading "Understanding Key Concepts and Their Synonyms" »

Plato's Theory of Knowledge

For Plato, the soul belongs to the intelligible world but resides in the material world. This leads to the Theory of Reminiscence, which posits that knowledge is acquired through experience, but we already possess it within us. We must realize that ideas are tools that help the soul remember what it already knows. Knowledge, therefore, comes from memories; to know is to remember. Socrates believed that truth lies within the soul. We should not seek what we do not know, because everything is already inside us.

There are other ways of knowing, such as the dialectic, which is the true knowledge of essences. It involves dialogue and discussions to understand Ideas. Dialectic is above reason, and scientific discourse constitutes... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge, Ethics, and Politics" »

Comprehensive Glossary of Terms

A

• Archbishop: Metropolitan Bishop of the Church or one who has such honors.
• Autocratic: Relating to an autocracy or autocrat.
• Acclamation: Action and effect of cheering, giving voice to the crowd.
• Amnesty: Pardon of a certain group of political crimes, granted by law.
• Agree: To agree on terms or conditions for concluding a business deal.
• Adjudicate: To dismiss the action and effect.
• Adjacent: Adjoining, bordering, borderline. Describes the land which bounds a town with another land.
• Appellant: One who resorts. A person who has filed an appeal.

B

• Bind: To ensure adhesion in tissues.

C

• Contrast: To resist, cope. To show remarkable disagreement or opposition of one thing with another.
• Covet: To desire eagerly wealth and property.

The Organization of the State as the Subject of DC

Here we are interested in developing the idea that when we speak of an authority that can be imposed, we believe it is political power, which has the capacity to decide and implement the standards. Political power has a monopoly on force in a community where violent acts are used to achieve social peace. Speaking of state power, we must also discuss an approach to organization, which consists of rules governing the operation of that power and even its monopoly. The criteria affecting the organization of the State are of three types:

1. Historico-Empirical Type (Heller)

This approach takes its reference from the anthropological features that occur in different social groups. The basic idea is that... Continue reading "Understanding State Organization and Political Power Dynamics" »

Permanent Disability

Permanent disability refers to a situation in which a worker, after undergoing the prescribed treatment, experiences serious anatomical or functional reductions. These reductions are objectively determinable, definitive, and expected to reduce or nullify their ability to work.

Grades of Permanent Disability

• Partial Disability: Does not decrease below 33% in the employee's normal performance for their usual job and they can perform the essential functions of the same.
• Total Disability: Inability to perform all basic tasks of the usual occupation, but the individual may engage in a different one.
• Absolute Disability: Disables the employee from performing any profession.
• Major Disability: The resulting losses from anatomical and

Theory of Knowledge

In The Discourse on Method (1637), Descartes summarizes the rules of method for attaining true knowledge in these four:

1. Do not accept as true anything that is not presented so clearly and distinctly that it does not fit doubt.
2. Divide the problems up to the simple natures.
3. Drive thoughts in order, going from the most simple to the more complex.
4. Make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that you can be sure not to forget anything.

It is, therefore, necessary to remove (considered as false) everything that is possible to doubt. In the Meditations, we can distinguish three levels of subsequent radicalization of methodical doubt:

1. He doubts that things are as they seem according to the testimony of the senses, as these have

René Descartes (1596-1650)

René Descartes (1596-1650) was a philosopher and mathematician. He was a key figure in the development of rationalism.

Descartes' Method

He devised a method that would allow progress with secure knowledge. This method is divided into four parts:

• Evidence: Do not accept anything that is not clearly evident to human reason.
• Analysis: Divide the problem into smaller parts and examine each one.
• Synthesis: Once you have the necessary elements, arrange them in an order, starting with the simplest and moving to the more complex.
• Enumeration: Review the process to ensure nothing has been omitted or done incorrectly.

The First Question and the First Truth

Descartes doubted all knowledge to arrive at a universal question. This doubt... Continue reading "Descartes: Rationalism, Method, and the Three Substances" »

Marvin Harris: Philosophical Implications of Technology

For Marvin Harris, technology has not necessarily brought progress for the individual, but it has had a beneficial effect on society. Harris identifies three stages in technological development:

• Hunter-gatherer societies
• Agrarian societies based on domesticated plants and animals
• Industrial societies

Each technological advancement impacts the use of leisure time. A hunter-gatherer needs approximately 3 hours a day to obtain food. During the Neolithic period, a farmer spent about 6 hours a day cultivating cereal or rice. In the 19th century, workers labored between 12 and 14 hours for minimal wages. Thus, technology may lead to a reduction of free time for individuals, but it has a beneficial... Continue reading "Marvin Harris: Technology, Society, and Alienation" »

Consciousness and Human Existence

Consciousness is relational. It implies the conscious human being, always open to reality. Reflexive consciousness is at all times self-aware. This awareness recognizes us as finite beings ('our days are numbered') and fosters intimacy. The human way of acting has two dimensions:

• First dimension: Humans are freed from the tyranny of stimuli and can decide their behavior.
• Second dimension: We determine our behavior because we have enjoyed the power of actualizing some of the possibilities we have at our disposal.

Key Factors in Human Evolution

• Standing: Walking upright on two legs implies a system that moves us away from solar radiation and allows for high endurance. Aristotle called it the "instrument of instruments.