Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

René Descartes is introduced into modern philosophy being the father of rationalism.

René is born in 1596 and dies in 1650

Descartes was a dualist. He affirmed that there are two substances: that of the body that possesses the attribute of extension, and that of the soul that possesses the attribute of thought.

There was a new worldview, this change implied a break with the old religious beliefs and the knowledge of other philosophers of the new planetary system was added, coming to the theory that the center of it was the sun. Because of this, Rene wanted to build new knowledge, that is, a new world for him.

Descartes attributes to the matter a creative force of its own, and considers the mechanical movement as the vital manifestation of matter... Continue reading "Rene Descartes: The Father of Rationalism" »

1. The Origin of Philosophy

Philosophy as a way of thinking is a human way of interacting with the world. It involves asking questions about the world around us in order to find meaning. This way of thinking, asking questions about the world, is deeply rooted in humans and has always existed.

However, its existence doesn't give rise to philosophy as a discipline. Philosophy as a discipline has a historical origin in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor during the 6th century B.C. One of these colonies was Miletus where Thales was born. Thales is considered to be one of the first philosophers. He used observation and reasoning to offer an explanation of the existence of natural things and phenomena. Thales' fundamental features:

• It begins with the recognition

The Purpose of Philosophy

• Integration of knowledge.
• Analysis and interpretation of concepts and theories.
• Rational critique.
• Transformation of reality.

Unity and Plurality in Philosophy

Philosophers who defended monism believe in the unity of reality. Philosophers who defend pluralism believe that the diversity of reality is essential, and that plurality cannot be reduced to an original unity.

Monism argues that there is a single reality which appears to be plural. Pluralism claims the opposite: reality is plural but it appears to be unitary. This clash of ideas forces us to distinguish between reality and appearances.

Monism claims that reality is essentially static (it remains permanent as changes occur). Pluralism claims that reality is essentially... Continue reading "Fundamental Concepts in Philosophy" »

What is Real?

1. Introduction to Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that questions reality. Why do things and beings exist? What are they? Where do they come from? Being: everything that exists can be considered a being. The concept of being is very broad and general because it refers to everything that is real.

2. Essence and Existence

• Essentialism: claims that essence exists as separate realities, independent from the individuals.
• Conceptualism: essence is only incorporated into individuals who possess it or think about it.
• Nominalism: states that the term (essence) is just a name we use in order to communicate – a sort of conventional label.

3. Philosophical Positions on the Existence of God

• Theism: affirms the existence of a

Humanization: This evolutionary process occurred alongside hominization. It refers to the behavioral changes experienced by the same species included in the hominization process.

Humanism: Artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe during the Renaissance. It defended free spirit and championed the abilities of human reason and intuition in the fields of philosophy, science, and art. Humanism avoided syllogistic methodology and dogmas that tried to control human creativity.

Inertia: Property of all bodies that keeps them at rest or in rectilinear motion, as long as that state is not changed by an external force.

Monotheism: Religious belief that affirms the existence of only one god who controls and governs all of reality.

Multiculturalism:

Philosophy:

Philosophy: Is a critical examination of reality characterized by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the sake of attaining wisdom. The etymology of the word is derived from two Greeks words: philo (love) and sophia (wisdom), literally means the loves of wisdom.

Wisdom is the proper understanding about nature of reality, a person is wise if he has a correct understanding about how things actually are and lives his lives accordingly. The philosopher seeks the truth to all people at all times, because it is not restricted to individual perceptions of what is true or false. Philosophy asks us to be able to justify why we hold these opinions, feelings or beliefs, we need to support our views using rather than emotions.Is not:... Continue reading "Understanding Philosophy: The Pursuit of Wisdom and Truth" »

Main Features of Philosophy

Philosophy is a radical “Why?”. It faces the basis of our world and existence. “Radical” means everything can be put into question, even philosophy itself (its own foundation). There are no prejudices allowed. For philosophy, nothing is taken for granted.

• Rational: No dogmas are allowed; it is based on logical arguments and experience.
• Systematic: Its assertions are related and hierarchical, ordered systematically without contradictions.
• Critical: Everything has to be examined by reason, even the simplest thing.

Philosophy is a problematizing discipline. Its value lies in its peculiar way of addressing problems more than in how it solves them. The questions, more than its answers, are valuable. It is a universalist

Public Speaking

A Well-Structured Talk

• Thorough subject knowledge
• Smart and professional appearance
• Careful preparation
• Good eye contact
• An enthusiastic attitude
• Strong voice
• Creative use of visuals
• Expansive body language

Transitional Phrases

• To start off, then
• To move on to my next point
• To go back to what I was saying
• To turn now to a different matter
• To say a bit more about that
• To give you an example of what I mean
• To digress for a moment
• To sum up, then

Techniques to Maximize Voice Use

• Rhetorical questions
• Dramatic contrast
• Tripling
• Repetition
• Simplification
• Emphasis
• Softening
• Machine gunning

Ethical Business Practices

Key Terms

• Ethical: Relating to beliefs about what is morally right and wrong.
• Activist: A person who believes strongly in political or social change

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is the false idea that nature legitimises the oppression of the socially weaker by the stronger. It is based on the Darwinian theory of evolution, which states that the fittest individuals survive and reproduce. However, Social Darwinism ignores the fact that humans are not simply animals, and that we have developed moral and ethical values that prevent us from acting in a purely selfish manner.

The Role of Aggression and Violence in the Evolution of Species

Aggression among members of the same species is fundamental for the conservation of the species. For example, fighting between rivals helps to determine who is the strongest and most fit to reproduce. In the case of humans, aggression has also played a role... Continue reading "Philosophical Implications of Evolutionism" »