Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

What Concept Does Plato Try to Clarify in The Republic and Why?

The Republic is a work whose object of discussion is to determine what justice consists of.

Plato wants to clarify justice, because for Plato it is easier to perceive justice in a complex existence than in a simple one.

He said that it’s easier to understand how justice operates in a city than in a single individual. Justice is a virtue common to man and the city; we could look for it, therefore, in one and another; as the city is very big, justice must be inscribed in it more clearly.

Which Three Classes Do the Ideal Society of Plato Need? Why Are They Necessary?

• Producers/workers/artisans: to gather the social body with all the necessary goods for its survival.
• Auxiliaries/defenders/

Aristotle's Virtue: Finding the Balance

The main theme is that virtues such as temperance and courage can be destroyed by both defect and excess, and that finding a balance or proportion in their exercise is essential to their preservation and growth. The text uses the examples of strength and health, as well as cowardice and rashness, to illustrate this point.

Aristotle's Concept of Virtue

Aristotle's concept of virtue is central to his ethical philosophy. He believed that virtue was a habit or disposition that allowed a person to act in accordance with reason and to achieve their goals in life. Virtue, according to Aristotle, is a mean between two extremes: deficiency and excess.

Examples of the Golden Mean

For example, the virtue of courage is... Continue reading "Aristotle's Virtue: The Golden Mean" »

Deductive Method

This method consists in going from general statements to particular statements. From some general judgments or definitions, individual conclusions, that are the necessary consequence of the first, are deduced.

The consistency and validity of this method is unquestionable: if the premises are true, the conclusion will be true as well.

This method is characteristic of formal sciences, although in empirical sciences it is also used in the first part of the investigation, when it is necessary to formulate hypotheses. This method is only feasible and sufficient in the formal sciences. For that reason, it is considered an inadequate method because, although it is useful to construct valid arguments,

Inductive Method

This method starts... Continue reading "Deductive, Inductive & Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning in Science" »

Understanding Business Ethics

Business ethics refer to the moral foundations that characterize the relationships companies maintain with stakeholders or interest groups. Ethics influences ordinary management and can also lead to modifying a company's strategy.

Impact on Decisions and Strategy

Business ethics affects different areas when making business decisions, especially economic and legal issues (Weiss, 2006). For example, companies involved in scams often see their reputation and share prices plummet due to a loss of confidence.

Consequences of Unethical Behavior

A recent example involves Volkswagen, following the scandal concerning the manipulation of polluting diesel engines. The collapse of companies involved in unethical practices is often... Continue reading "Business Ethics: Core Principles and Corporate Impact" »

The Ultimate Vocabulary Builder

From Pontificate to Preposterous

Pontificate - to speak pompously or dogmatically

Porous - filled with many tiny holes; permeable; absorbent

Posterity - future generations; descendants; heirs

Posthumous - occurring after one's death; published after the death of the author

Posture - to act or speak artificially or affectedly

Prattle - to chatter on and on; to babble childishly

Precarious - dangerously insecure or unsteady

Precocious - unusually mature; uncommonly gifted

Predecessor - someone or something that precedes in time

Predicament - a dangerous or unpleasant situation; a dilemma

Predispose - to make susceptible; to put in a frame of mind for; to incline toward

Predominant - most important; dominant; having power over... Continue reading "The Ultimate Vocabulary Builder: From Pontificate to Preposterous" »

JUVENILE OFFENDER (13-14-15)

MARK-AW-ABRAMS

M = MURDER 2ND

• Intentional/Depraved 13-14-15
• Felony Murder 14-15 sometimes

A = ARSON 1ST or 2ND

R = ROBBERY 1ST, or ROBBERY 2ND, subd. 2(a) or 2(b)

K = KIDNAPPING 1ST

A = ASSAULT 1ST, subds. 1 or 2

W = WEAPONS (school grounds)

A = ATTEMPT

• MURDER 2ND
• KIDNAPPING 1ST

B = BURGLARY 1ST, OR BURGLARY 2ND, subd. 1

R = RAPE 1ST, subds. 1 or 2

A = AGGRAVATED SEXUAL ABUSE (130.70)

M = MANSLAUGHTER 1ST

S = CRIMINAL SEXUAL ACT 1ST, subds. 1 or 2

DR-BARKS (Prevent/terminate)

• D = D.P.F. against you or another
• R = ROBBERY
• B = BURGLARY of DWELLING or OCCUPIED BUILDING
• A = ARSON (CAN BE A PASSER BY)
• R = RAPE (FORCIBLE)
• K = KIDNAPPING
• S = CRIMINAL SEXUAL ACT (FORCIBLE)

MR-&-MRS (Civilian arrest)

• M = MURDER
• R = ROBBERY
• M = MANSLAUGHTER 1ST DEGREE
• R

What are the Three Prongs of the Lemon Test?

• (1) It must have a "secular legislative purpose"
• (2) Neutral
• (3) Avoid an "excessive government entanglement with religion."
  • Establishment Clause prevents the government from creating an official church, from preferring one faith over another, and from discriminating against non-believers.

Different Ways to View the Establishment Clause and What Was the Only Reason...

• Accommodationist: According to the "accommodationist view," government needs religion to instill the moral values required for maintaining civil order. Modern-day accommodationists also argue that religion is part of the national heritage, and adds solemnity and dignity to civic events. Accordingly, accommodationists contend that government

Hobbes's State of Nature and the Origin of Society

1. The State of Nature

Modern thinkers like Hobbes and Rousseau agree on the possibility of a state of nature without society, diverging from classical and medieval thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle, who believed humans were inherently social. Aristotle famously stated, "For living without society, you need to be a God or a Beast." Even today, some agree with this classical perspective. Hobbes, however, envisioned a state of nature defined by specific human characteristics:

• Selfishness and Instrumental Reason: Reason serves as a tool for selfish pursuits, driven by passions and desires.
• Equality: Despite minor differences in strength or ability, everyone is fundamentally equal because even

Statesmanship and Warcraft

Machiavelli believes that good laws follow naturally from a good military. Machiavelli reverses the conventional understanding of war as a necessary, but not definitive, element of the development of states. Instead, he asserts that successful war is the very foundation upon which all states are built. Much of The Prince is devoted to describing exactly what it means to conduct a good war. But Machiavelli's description of war encompasses more than just the direct use of military force when cities were constantly threatened by neighboring principalities, and the area had suffered through power struggles for many years.

Goodwill and Hatred

To remain in power, a prince must avoid the hatred of his people. It is not necessary... Continue reading "Machiavelli and Mill: Power, Liberty, and Human Nature" »

Causation

Causation is focused on D's carelessness caused the C's injury.

2 tiers of causation: Factual, Legal

Factual: link between def breach & c's loss is known as the 'but for' test. - But for the C has suffered injury/ loss.

'But for' Case

* Cork v Kirby MaClean

Denning LJ: If you can say the damage would not happen for particular fault, then the fault is caused by damage. But if you say the damage would happen the same, fault or not, the fault is not a cause of damage.

Multiple Tort

*Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeras Service

C suffered mesothelioma which caused negligently exposure to asbestos by employers. Due to insufficient evidence, C unable to show which employer satisfied causation. Lord Bigham held that McGhee test would apply when 6 conditions:... Continue reading "Causation and Liability in Tort Law" »