Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

A) Phenomenologically

• I) Vital activity
• II) Relation between a subject and an object
• III) Intentional union

B) Metaphysics of Knowledge

• I) Condition: Proportion between the two opposite ends
  Proportion: They must have something in common.
• II) Image impressed in the subject by the action of the object
• III) Relativity (not relativism) of knowledge
• IV) The direct action of knowledge falls onto the object (not onto the image)
• V) Implies immateriality

Natural Appetite

• Proof:
  • (i) Principle of causality: The operation follows the being.
  • (ii) Principle of finality: Every agent acts for an end.
• Origin:
  • 1. Far principle: Nature’s Creator
  • 2. Close principle: The form
• Value:
  • Natural appetite cannot be wrong: it is necessarily right, because it is natural.
  • A natural desire

Utilitarianism and the Morality of Torture

Torture has been one of the most controversial topics around the world. According to human rights principles, torture is considered illegal across national territories, even in desperate situations. Therefore, this essay focuses on arguments supporting the moral permissibility of torturing a suspected bomber, based on utilitarian theory, to save a significant number of civilians.

Defining Utilitarian Ethics

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory holding that an action is right if it tends to increase the amount of good (happiness or pleasure) for the greatest number of people affected, while decreasing sadness or pain. This theory focuses strictly on the consequences of an action rather than the motivations... Continue reading "Ticking Time Bomb: Utilitarian Ethics and Torture" »

Core Ethical Values and Social Principles

Definitions of Key Values

• Fairness: The value that guarantees all individuals the same access to opportunities, the right to express themselves, and the right to participate.
• Pluralism: Respecting and coexisting with other cultures.
• Justice: Giving to each person what corresponds to them or what they deserve.
• Respect: Recognizing the inherent value of human beings.
• Tolerance: Appreciating and respecting differences in people without discriminating against others for being different.
• Reciprocity: Indicates mutual actions, corresponding to others' attention in an appropriate way (e.g., good for good, appreciating favors).
• Responsibility: The duty or obligation to satisfactorily perform and complete a task.
• Dignity:

Aristotle on Happiness, Virtue and Justice

Being and the Good

For Aristotle there is an exact correlation between being and the good. There is no single being, but many beings, and there is no single good but many private goods.

Ethics as Telological and Eudaimonistic

Aristotle's ethics is essentially telological and eudaimonistic. All human actions are oriented toward the achievement of the good. This good is the final cause. These goods are more or less desirable but are not considered the highest good. But the difficulty lies in determining specifically what those goods and that happiness consist of.

The Highest Good and Its Characteristics

According to Aristotle, the greatest good or happiness has the following characteristics:

• It is a way of

Theological Concepts: Poverty and Virtue

Material Poverty: The lack of sufficient material means and opportunities to meet basic human needs.

Poverty of Soul: Describes people who are hopeless about life and lack the virtues.

Poverty of Spirit: Connected to the first Beatitudes; a detachment from worldly things and voluntary humility.

Poverty of Addiction: Describes people who seek things such as possessions, prestige, beauty, substances, and sex in an attempt to find fulfillment.

Virtues and Rights

Humility: Virtue that avoids extreme ambition and pride, focusing rather on the acknowledgement that God is the author of all that is good.

Divine Providence: Latin for "God will provide the dispositions by which God guides His creation to perfection to... Continue reading "Theological Concepts: Poverty, Morality, and Bioethics" »

The Rise of Cosmetic Surgery and Societal Pressure

At present, *physical appearance* has become a major matter of interest. Many individuals dislike their image and seek to change it to be accepted by society, often undergoing surgeries to "beautify" themselves, sometimes putting their health in danger. Because of this, over the years, **cosmetic surgeries** have achieved high popularity, especially among women.

One of the primary reasons people decide to undergo cosmetic surgery is the feeling of not being accepted in society because of their body or appearance. Consequently, these individuals (especially women) seek to improve their physical appearance by changing certain body parts. However, many experts in cosmetic surgery disagree with this... Continue reading "Societal Pressure and the Hidden Risks of Cosmetic Surgery" »

Effective Shift Handover

Effective communication between outgoing and incoming personnel is extremely important in maintenance. Individuals must assume personal ownership and responsibility for their tasks. Information should be transmitted in written, spoken, and gestured (nonverbal) forms. Using multiple communication methods (redundancy) reduces risk.

When an experienced person hands over to an inexperienced one, the former must assume the latter lacks the same knowledge and will need more time for the handover. For example, a brief, spoken-only handover (lack of redundancy) resulted in missing screws during installation. The next shift, believing all screws were installed, released the airplane for service.

The Dirty Dozen

The Dirty Dozen refers... Continue reading "Effective Shift Handover and Human Error in Aviation Maintenance" »

Mastering Essential English Vocabulary for Work

Key Definitions and Terms

• To Earn Money: To receive payment in return for one’s labor or service; to deserve compensation.
• Teamwork: Collaborative effort where individuals work together for the profit or benefit of the group (e.g., group projects).
• To Make a Profit: To achieve good results or earn money by engaging in a specific activity or business.
• To Pack: To put clothes and necessary items into suitcases, typically before a trip.
• To Deliver: To take something (such as letters, pizza, or messages) to a specific location.
• To Dare: To not feel afraid of doing something. Example: If your parents are very strict, you might not dare to come home late.
• To Guarantee: To assure that something is certain;

Interactions Between Classes

Inheritance: The process of a subclass (child) taking on the functionality of a superclass (parent), known as generalization. It is represented by a straight line with the arrow pointing towards the superclass.

Bidirectional Association: Both classes are aware of each other and their relationship. It is represented by a straight line between the two classes.

Aggregation and Composition

• Aggregation: Example: Class (parent) and student (child). If the class is deleted, the students still exist.
• Composition: Example: House (parent) and room (child). If the house is deleted, the rooms do not exist.

Ethical Dilemmas in Software Development

1. Log Files: What to Save and How to Handle Them

Programmers keep records of everything,... Continue reading "Object-Oriented Relationships and Software Ethics" »

Introduction to the Psychology of Intelligence

Thought is considered an overall psychological phenomenon of intelligence. It has historically been poorly studied due to several factors:

• Difficulties in experimenting: This is due to the separation of its physical substrate and a lack of necessary dependence on its psychological precedents.
• Difficulties in isolating it from words: There are no guarantees that you know what you are saying.
• Difficulties in isolating it from philosophy.

Biological Perspective

From a biological point of view, intelligence is characterized by the following:

• It is a necessary requirement for life.
• It is a necessary consequence of life: a natural and innate activity (similar to instincts).
• All individuals of a species are intelligent.