Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

External Sensible Knowledge

The Object of the Senses

• Formal Object:
  • Per se (Direct): That which can be perceived by the sense.
    • Proper: Can only be perceived by one specific sense.
    • Common: Can be perceived by multiple senses.
  • Per accidens (Indirect): That which the sense does not perceive by itself, but is added by the soul to the direct object. Our senses are never wrong; this is confirmed by experience.

The Nature of the Senses

Senses are potencies or powers. They require stimulation to transition from potency to act. Senses react to the action of an object; they are passive, meaning they will not react without external activity.

1. It is a capability.
2. It is a passive potency.
3. It is neither purely material nor spiritual; senses are bodies informed by an

A) Phenomenologically

• I) Vital activity
• II) Relation between a subject and an object
• III) Intentional union

B) Metaphysics of Knowledge

• I) Condition: Proportion between the two opposite ends
  Proportion: They must have something in common.
• II) Image impressed in the subject by the action of the object
• III) Relativity (not relativism) of knowledge
• IV) The direct action of knowledge falls onto the object (not onto the image)
• V) Implies immateriality

Natural Appetite

• Proof:
  • (i) Principle of causality: The operation follows the being.
  • (ii) Principle of finality: Every agent acts for an end.
• Origin:
  • 1. Far principle: Nature’s Creator
  • 2. Close principle: The form
• Value:
  • Natural appetite cannot be wrong: it is necessarily right, because it is natural.
  • A natural desire

Utilitarianism and the Morality of Torture

Torture has been one of the most controversial topics around the world. According to human rights principles, torture is considered illegal across national territories, even in desperate situations. Therefore, this essay focuses on arguments supporting the moral permissibility of torturing a suspected bomber, based on utilitarian theory, to save a significant number of civilians.

Defining Utilitarian Ethics

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory holding that an action is right if it tends to increase the amount of good (happiness or pleasure) for the greatest number of people affected, while decreasing sadness or pain. This theory focuses strictly on the consequences of an action rather than the motivations... Continue reading "Ticking Time Bomb: Utilitarian Ethics and Torture" »

Core Ethical Values and Social Principles

Definitions of Key Values

• Fairness: The value that guarantees all individuals the same access to opportunities, the right to express themselves, and the right to participate.
• Pluralism: Respecting and coexisting with other cultures.
• Justice: Giving to each person what corresponds to them or what they deserve.
• Respect: Recognizing the inherent value of human beings.
• Tolerance: Appreciating and respecting differences in people without discriminating against others for being different.
• Reciprocity: Indicates mutual actions, corresponding to others' attention in an appropriate way (e.g., good for good, appreciating favors).
• Responsibility: The duty or obligation to satisfactorily perform and complete a task.
• Dignity:

Aristotle on Happiness, Virtue and Justice

Being and the Good

For Aristotle there is an exact correlation between being and the good. There is no single being, but many beings, and there is no single good but many private goods.

Ethics as Telological and Eudaimonistic

Aristotle's ethics is essentially telological and eudaimonistic. All human actions are oriented toward the achievement of the good. This good is the final cause. These goods are more or less desirable but are not considered the highest good. But the difficulty lies in determining specifically what those goods and that happiness consist of.

The Highest Good and Its Characteristics

According to Aristotle, the greatest good or happiness has the following characteristics:

• It is a way of

Theological Concepts: Poverty and Virtue

Material Poverty: The lack of sufficient material means and opportunities to meet basic human needs.

Poverty of Soul: Describes people who are hopeless about life and lack the virtues.

Poverty of Spirit: Connected to the first Beatitudes; a detachment from worldly things and voluntary humility.

Poverty of Addiction: Describes people who seek things such as possessions, prestige, beauty, substances, and sex in an attempt to find fulfillment.

Virtues and Rights

Humility: Virtue that avoids extreme ambition and pride, focusing rather on the acknowledgement that God is the author of all that is good.

Divine Providence: Latin for "God will provide the dispositions by which God guides His creation to perfection to... Continue reading "Theological Concepts: Poverty, Morality, and Bioethics" »

The Rise of Cosmetic Surgery and Societal Pressure

At present, *physical appearance* has become a major matter of interest. Many individuals dislike their image and seek to change it to be accepted by society, often undergoing surgeries to "beautify" themselves, sometimes putting their health in danger. Because of this, over the years, **cosmetic surgeries** have achieved high popularity, especially among women.

One of the primary reasons people decide to undergo cosmetic surgery is the feeling of not being accepted in society because of their body or appearance. Consequently, these individuals (especially women) seek to improve their physical appearance by changing certain body parts. However, many experts in cosmetic surgery disagree with this... Continue reading "Societal Pressure and the Hidden Risks of Cosmetic Surgery" »

Effective Shift Handover

Effective communication between outgoing and incoming personnel is extremely important in maintenance. Individuals must assume personal ownership and responsibility for their tasks. Information should be transmitted in written, spoken, and gestured (nonverbal) forms. Using multiple communication methods (redundancy) reduces risk.

When an experienced person hands over to an inexperienced one, the former must assume the latter lacks the same knowledge and will need more time for the handover. For example, a brief, spoken-only handover (lack of redundancy) resulted in missing screws during installation. The next shift, believing all screws were installed, released the airplane for service.

The Dirty Dozen

The Dirty Dozen refers... Continue reading "Effective Shift Handover and Human Error in Aviation Maintenance" »

Mastering Essential English Vocabulary for Work

Key Definitions and Terms

• To Earn Money: To receive payment in return for one’s labor or service; to deserve compensation.
• Teamwork: Collaborative effort where individuals work together for the profit or benefit of the group (e.g., group projects).
• To Make a Profit: To achieve good results or earn money by engaging in a specific activity or business.
• To Pack: To put clothes and necessary items into suitcases, typically before a trip.
• To Deliver: To take something (such as letters, pizza, or messages) to a specific location.
• To Dare: To not feel afraid of doing something. Example: If your parents are very strict, you might not dare to come home late.
• To Guarantee: To assure that something is certain;

Advantages and Disadvantages of Starting Your Own Business

Some people contemplate starting their own business at some point in their lives. Like everything in life, owning a business has its advantages and disadvantages, its securities and risks. But perhaps, not having a job also has risks. The wonderful adventure of starting a business is something worth experiencing. In this essay, we will discuss the arguments in favor of and against this issue.

Advantages of Owning a Business

On the one hand, there are many advantages, such as:

• Economic independence
• Freedom of time
• The possibility to work where you like
• Leaving an inheritance
• Planning your holidays

A study by... shows that 40 percent of people have benefited from owning their own business, 50... Continue reading "Starting a Business: Advantages and Disadvantages" »