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Vitamins and Minerals

Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin C: Protects, regulates, and facilitates chemical processes of other enzymes. Its main function is the formation of collagen, facilitates the absorption of iron, protects vitamin A and E from oxidation, and regulates cholesterol metabolism. Sources: green vegetables, citrus fruits, tomatoes. Deficiency: scurvy, irritability, bone pain, easy bleeding, poor healing. Toxicity: gastric irritation, kidney stones, false positive tests for fecal occult blood or glucosuria.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Important coenzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Sources: meat, grains, legumes. Deficiency causes: alcoholism, dialysis, diet high in carbohydrates. Beriberi, Wernicke's encephalopathy.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Exception to the Cell Theory: Viruses

Is a self-replicating biological entity capable of using cellular machinery. It is a potentially pathogenic agent composed of a capsid protein surrounding the nucleic acid, which can be DNA or RNA. This structure can, in turn, be surrounded by the viral envelope, a lipid layer with different proteins, depending on the virus's life cycle. A virus always needs the metabolic machinery of an invaded cell to replicate its genetic material, producing many copies of the original. This process underlies the destructive power of viruses because they can damage or destroy the cell.

Features of Viruses:

• Size: Extremely small.
• Crystallization Structure: Having a volume and identical form, viral particulates tend to order

Male Reproductive System

Glands Attached

• Seminal Vesicles: These two glands produce 60% of the seminal fluid, which contains fructose. They generate peristaltic contractions in the ejaculatory ducts. The clotting proteins in the semen form a weak coagulum in the vagina, keeping the semen in the deeper regions.
• Prostate: Nut-shaped, it surrounds and is traversed by the urethra. Prostatic fluid contributes 13-22% of semen volume and contains calcium, phosphate ions, and a clotting enzyme. The prostate's volume can increase with age (benign prostatic hyperplasia). Symptoms include increased prostate volume, difficulty urinating, and post-urination dribbling.
• Cowper's Glands: These glands clear the urethra of residual urine before sperm ejection. They

Locke's Theory of Knowledge

Locke's theory begins with the rejection of rationalist nativism. He argues against the existence of innate ideas or knowledge in the understanding. If such innate ideas existed, all individuals would possess them from the beginning of their existence, but this is not something we observe.

The understanding is more like a blank slate (tabula rasa).

Classes of Concepts and Ideas

When speaking of "idea", Locke refers to everything we know or perceive.

• Simple Ideas: These ideas cannot be broken down into others. They are necessarily imposed on the mind, which remains passive. They can be classified as:
  • Ideas of Sensation: These originate from outer experience. They are impressions produced on our external senses by external

Mechanistic View of the Universe

Mechanistic thought emerged during the transition from the medieval model, a time marked by a shift from theocentrism (God as the center of everything) to anthropocentrism (man as the center of everything).

The New Vision of the Universe

Initially, the universe was believed to be orderly and stable, adhering to the geocentric model (Earth at the center of the universe). However, this was replaced by the heliocentric model (the Sun at the center), with Earth and other planets revolving around it. The universe was no longer seen as finite, as it was with Aristotle, but infinite and homogeneous, governed by mathematical laws explaining the behavior of both celestial and terrestrial bodies. This is known as the mechanistic

Insulin Action Times

Understanding the action times of different insulin types is crucial for effective diabetes management. Here's a breakdown:

• Rapid-Acting:
  • Examples: Actrapid or Humulin Regular
  • Onset: 20-30 minutes
  • Peak: 2-4 hours
  • Duration: 6-8 hours
  • Note: Crystalline insulin
• Intermediate-Acting:
  • Examples: Insulatard or Humulin NPH
  • Onset: 45-60 minutes
  • Peak: 6 hours
  • Duration: 12-14 hours
  • Note: Protamine insulin
• Long-Acting:
  • Examples: Monotard or Slow
  • Onset: 60-90 minutes
  • Peak: 8-12 hours
  • Duration: 24 hours
  • Note: 70% zinc

When insulin is administered twice daily, typically 60% is given in the morning and 40% at night.

Managing Nocturnal Hypoglycemia

Nocturnal hypoglycemia with rebound hyperglycemia before breakfast (Somogyi effect) can be managed by checking capillary... Continue reading "Insulin Types, Administration, and Oral Hypoglycemic Agents in Diabetes" »

The Area of Urban Influence

Cities are central places supplying goods and services to a more or less extensive area, known as their area of influence. A system of settlements was proposed by Christaller in 1933. He classified central places according to the variety and quality of the functions they play and assigned them a hexagonal area of influence. The result is an organized territory resembling a hexagonal mesh formed by the areas of influence of each of the central places. The area of influence of cities is not homogeneous and is constantly changing.

• Madrid: Principal place of influence throughout Spain.
• Periphery: Nuclei of influence.

Following at an intermediary distance are the mid-range cities, and then nuclei of minor influence.

Hierarchy

Indirect Calorimetry Basics

Overall Energy Consumption

Indirect calorimetry determines energy consumption by measuring O₂ consumption and CO₂ production. It uses the equation: Food + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O, and also accounts for urinary nitrogen (~1g urinary N represents the oxidation of 6.25g protein).

The amount of calories produced per liter of O₂ in metabolism is relatively constant, regardless of whether the fuel used is carbohydrates, lipids, or proteins.

Limitations and Applications

Various physiological situations can alter the body's gas exchange and affect energy expenditure estimations. These include changes in acid-base balance due to acidosis or hyperventilation (including hiccups).

Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

RQ = VCO₂ / VO₂. This ratio indicates... Continue reading "Indirect Calorimetry: Measuring Energy Expenditure & Metabolism" »

Topic 2: The 18th Century Revolutions

Agricultural Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution saw remarkable increases in food production due to key innovations:

• Changes in farming systems
• Introduction of new machinery
• New property structures

The spread of crop rotation (e.g., the Norfolk system), combining cereal and fodder cultivation, eliminated the need for fallow periods.

Increased Production & Demographic Growth

Increased food production led to lower food prices in the 18th century, contributing to significant demographic growth. Birth rates rose, mortality rates decreased, and life expectancy increased.

Industrial Revolution

The concentration of workers in factories led to the decline of many handmade crafts, with factory production replacing... Continue reading "18th Century Agricultural & Industrial Revolutions" »

Martyrdom of St. Philip

Artist: José de Ribera

This work depicts the martyrdom of St. Philip. The composition is vertically oriented with horizontal planes. Light falls directly onto St. Philip and his executioners. St. Philip's body displays anatomical detail. His serene face and strained muscles add realism to the image. The piece showcases Ribera's study of light and shadow and his naturalistic style.

Still Life

Artist: Francisco de Zurbarán

This still life emphasizes the quality of the objects, highlighting the textures of fabrics, ceramics, clay, glass, and metal against a dark, matte background. The tenebrist style uses direct light on the objects, creating a strong contrast of light and shadow. The drawing is precise, and the composition... Continue reading "17th-Century Spanish Pictorial Works" »