Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems

Henry Hobson Richardson

• Trinity Church, Boston (1875)
• Sever Hall, Cambridge (1887)
• Ames Gate Lodge (1881)
• Ames Memorial Library (1877)
• Crane Memorial Library, Quincy (1880)
• Watts Sherman House, Newport (1874)
• Marshall Field Wholesale Store, Chicago (1885)

Adler & Sullivan

• Guaranty Building, Buffalo (1895)
• Auditorium Building, Chicago (1890)
• Wainwright Building, St. Louis (1890)
• Charnley Residence (1892)
• Gage Building, Chicago (1898)
• Schlesinger & Mayer (Scott) Store, Chicago (1903)
• Merchants' National Bank, Iowa (1914)
• Farmers' Bank, Wisconsin (1919)

Frank Lloyd Wright

• Robie House, Chicago (1909)
• Martin House, Buffalo (1904)
• Larkin Building, Buffalo (1904)
• Unity Temple, Chicago (1906)
• Press Building, San Francisco (1912)
• National Life Insurance, Chicago (

The Great Depression: The 1929 Economic Crisis

The Crisis of 1929 was the first major global crisis of capitalism. On October 29, the New York Stock Exchange—the largest in the world—collapsed due to a drastic decline in equities. This event triggered a global crisis, marking the end of Britain as the primary world power and the rise of the United States as the new global leader.

Factors and the New Deal

A primary factor of the crisis was the massive debt left by the First World War, as the U.S. economy had been funding the reconstruction of Europe. This crisis brought profound changes to the global economic system. In response, Franklin D. Roosevelt introduced the New Deal, a series of laws that established:

• Protection for the population most

The New World Order and Recent Global Conflicts

Following the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the United States became the global hegemon. When the Gulf War ended in 1991, President George H.W. Bush proclaimed before the U.S. Congress the beginning of a "new world order" that would promote peace based on respect for human rights, the establishment and defense of democracy, and the rule of the market economy and free trade. This consolidated the dominance of the United States and its NATO allies worldwide.

The War on Terror and the 21st Century

In the 21st century, several serious events occurred. On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked three commercial aircraft and crashed them into the Twin Towers and the Pentagon. This prompted President... Continue reading "Global Geopolitics and the New World Order" »

The Foundation of Universal Reason

Descartes believes that there is a reason common to all men that, if used properly, can achieve a single truth. Therefore, a method is needed to help us use reason correctly. Furthermore, this method will serve all sciences, since they are all part of a single reality.

Defining the Cartesian Procedure

Descartes defines the procedure as a set of rules "certain and easy, such that those who observe them will never take something false as true and will come to the understanding of all things that do not exceed their capacity."

The Two Powers of Reason

Reason is exercised through two primary powers: intuition and deduction.

Intuition: Clarity and Distinction

The first is the ability to perceive something with no chance... Continue reading "Descartes' Method for Reaching Universal Truth" »

Classification of Sciences

Sciences distinguished by Pythagorean scholars: arithmetic, astronomy, and music.

Pure natural sciences are divided into: chemical and physical sciences, life sciences, and earth sciences.

Three social sciences: psychology, economics, and law.

Epistemology and Methodology

Empiricism: A philosophical doctrine that asserts that knowledge is acquired on the basis of experience and denies the possibility of spontaneous ideas.

Social Science: The science responsible for observing and analyzing human behavior.

Differences Between Social and Natural Sciences

Methodological differences: The natural sciences are tested by experiments in laboratories and study the environment. The social sciences study human behavior and are analyzed... Continue reading "Foundations of Natural, Social, and Economic Sciences" »

Economic and Accounting Costs

Accounting cost is the actual cost plus expenses of depreciation of capital equipment. Economic cost is the cost for a company that utilizes financial resources in production, including the opportunity cost.

Opportunity Cost

Opportunity cost is the cost of the opportunity lost by not utilizing the company's resources for an alternative of greater value. Both accountants and economists include the cost of real money, known as cash flows, in their calculations. These include:

• Salaries and wages
• Cost of raw materials
• Leases of real property

Sunk Costs

A sunk cost is a cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered. They are usually visible, but once they have been spent, they should always be left aside when... Continue reading "Economic and Accounting Costs in Business Production" »

1. The Indian Party System Since 1990

The Indian party system underwent a significant transformation after 1990, marking the decline of Congress dominance and the emergence of a competitive, fragmented, and coalition-based system. This evolution is defined by changes in structure, ideology, leadership, and voter behavior.

Decline of One-Party Dominance

Until the late 1980s, Indian politics was dominated by the Indian National Congress. After 1990, this dominance weakened due to organizational decay, leadership crises, and the rise of strong regional parties.

Rise of Coalition Politics

Between 1989 and 2014, no single party secured a clear majority in the Lok Sabha. Governments like the National Front, United Front, NDA, and UPA relied on regional... Continue reading "Indian Political System: Trends, Parties, and Governance" »

The Reality of Existence

The wonder of the reality of existence: this starting point of negation shows that philosophy cannot say anything about God. For ontology, the idea of God is a theory explaining the existence of all reality. This science treats the problem. What is surprising is that there is something; that is the origin of God.

The fact of the question of existence (that there is something rather than nothing) puts us in an ontological dilemma. Reality exists in one of two ways:

• By itself: It is self-sufficient.
• Not by itself: It is not self-sufficient, but depends on another reality that we call God.

It is its principle of existence; from here it can be deduced that all reality is either God or God exists separately from the reality we... Continue reading "The Ontological Reality of Existence and First Philosophy" »

Definition of Decolonization

Decolonization refers to the historical process through which European empires granted independence to their territories during the 20th century.

Key Factors Driving Decolonization

• Post-World War II Weakness: European metropolises were significantly weakened, making it difficult to maintain control over distant colonies.
• Rise of Nationalism: Nationalist movements strengthened, and the war provided anti-guerrilla training and fostered the emergence of popular leaders.
• Superpower Influence: The United States and the Soviet Union, the two dominant superpowers, did not support the traditional colonial model.
• UN Mission: The United Nations played a crucial role by promoting the right of peoples to self-determination.

Chronology

Christopher Columbus and the Voyages to the Americas

While the Portuguese reached India and China by sailing south and east, Christopher Columbus sought to reach India by sailing west into the Atlantic Ocean. King John II of Portugal refused to finance the expedition, so Columbus petitioned the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. After conquering the Kingdom of Granada, they finally agreed to fund his voyage.

Columbus set sail on three ships: the Pinta, the Niña, and the Santa María. On 12 October 1492, they sighted land, and Columbus mistakenly believed he had arrived in Japan. He returned to Seville with gold and indigenous people to prove his success.

In 1493, Columbus returned to the Americas. The Spanish defeated opposing tribes and took many slaves,... Continue reading "Christopher Columbus and Pre-Columbian Civilizations" »