Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Music

Classicism in Music: The Classic Era (1750–1830)

After 1750, a new social, cultural, and artistic current swept across Europe: the Enlightenment.

The Influence of the Enlightenment

The French Encyclopedists approached all aspects of reality with a scientific spirit, including philosophy, economics, and music. The Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert defined the characteristics of melody, harmony, and the orchestra.

Characteristics and Context of Classical Music

• Classical music was characterized by being balanced and clear.
• The undisputed Music Capital of the era was Vienna.
• Key Personalities: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.

The Musician's Role in the 18th Century

In the eighteenth century, music was still considered a craft, with musicians typically... Continue reading "The Classical Era in Music: Forms, Figures, and the Vienna School" »

The Baroque era, a significant period in European culture and an influential artistic movement, flourished under the power of absolute monarchies. It is characterized by dramatic contrasts of light and shadow, dynamic movement, and rich, strong colors.

Defining the Baroque Period

Key artists include:

• Sculpture: Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Francesco Borromini.
• Painting: Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Peter Paul Rubens, Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Diego Velázquez, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo.

Baroque Music: An Era of Innovation

Baroque music developed between approximately 1600 and 1750, a period marked by the emergence of the first operas and concluding with the death of its most iconic representative, Johann Sebastian Bach. Originating in... Continue reading "The Baroque Era: Art, Music, and Cultural Impact" »

African Music and Its Cultural Divisions

The African continent is culturally divided into two large areas with distinct musical practices:

• The Maghreb: The northern side of the continent, including countries of Arabic culture.
• Sub-Saharan Africa: South of the Sahara Desert, further divided into:
  • West Africa: The coast of Guinea, where powerful kingdoms existed before European domination.
  • Central Africa: Occupied by countries such as Uganda, Tanzania, and Zaire, where languages share a common origin and a certain cultural identity.
  • Southern Africa: Whose music is most representatively found among the Khoisan peoples.

Common Features of African Music

Despite more than a thousand languages on the continent, common characteristics of African music include:... Continue reading "African Music Traditions: Diversity and Characteristics" »

Five Masters of Italian Renaissance Art

Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio)

Raphael (1483–1520), an influential Italian Renaissance painter, is considered one of the greatest and most influential artists of all time. His notable works include:

• Apollo and Marsyas (Louvre, Paris)
• The Dream of the Knight (1501)

Giotto (c. 1266–1337): The Dawn of Western Painting

Giotto was the most important Italian painter of the fourteenth century. His conception of the human figure, representing large and rounded lines—rather than the flat, two-dimensional representation characteristic of the Gothic and Byzantine styles—indicates a profound concern for naturalism. This approach marked a crucial turning point in the evolution of Western painting.

Sandro Botticelli (

The Baroque Era

The term Baroque initially referred to a style characterized by complicated and irregular shapes in its lines. It then spread to other realms of art, like painting, sculpture, music, and especially literature. In Spain, it would reach a particular development.

Features and Style

The Baroque was a significant cultural movement manifested in literature, architecture, music, and fine arts. The 17th century is characterized by exaggeration and pessimism. In the literary field, the Baroque style has the following features:

• It highlights a special interest in language, marked by an aesthetic desire for originality.
• It is characterized by hyperbole, exaggeration, and corrosive wit.
• The world is seen as a struggle of opposites: life and,

The Spanish Vihuela: History and Characteristics

The practice of the lute in Europe coincided with the heyday of the Spanish Vihuela, which constitutes the typical Spanish instrument of the era. Unlike the lute, the vihuela's body is flat and its neck is short. It was played by plucking the strings with the fingers and typically had six courses (pairs of strings).

The vihuela was an aristocratic instrument, unlike the 17th-century guitar, which was popular. It was also a polyphonic instrument, and like the lute, it came in different sizes.

Vihuela Repertoire and Cultural Significance

The vihuela's peak was very short, lasting about half a century, yet in that brief time, its repertoire eclipsed that of almost any other noble instrument in Spain.... Continue reading "Renaissance String Instruments: Vihuela vs. Lute History and Repertoire" »

The Renaissance: A Transformative Cultural Movement

The Renaissance was a profound cultural movement encompassing all aspects of human activity. It marked a fundamental shift in mentality, a reassessment of the world, the individual, and existence itself. At its essence, it represented a revival of classical ideals. Chronologically, it began in the mid-fourteenth century in northern Italy and spread across Europe by the sixteenth century. This era saw the imitation of classical models and the application of humanist principles.

Key Characteristics of the Renaissance

• Social Transformation: The birth of modern states.
• Economic Shifts: Changes in the craft production system, indicating early signs of pre-capitalism.
• Global Expansion: Discovery and

Basso Continuo and Baroque Music Characteristics

A most important characteristic of the Baroque era is the emphasis on the accompaniment, often referred to as the Basso Continuo (or Figured Bass). In this practice, the melody has a new backing, where the accompaniment is constructed so that the bass-melody binomial is central. The most important element is often not the melody itself, but the accompaniment.

The bass line is performed with polyphonic instruments, such as the harpsichord, the organ, or the guitar, since these instruments can play several voices at once. The practice of Basso Continuo implied that the musician performing the accompaniment only had a series of numbers written below the bass line. This series of numbers, known as... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Music Theory: Scales, Notation, and Baroque Practice" »

Romanticism is the expression of cultural ideals of the bourgeoisie, struggling to gain political power, social, and cultural development. Individualism is where the original artist expresses romantic rebel and nonconformist attitudes through his tormented inner world. This is expressed through turbulent subjectivism, nocturnal landscapes, and gives priority to the manifestation of beliefs. His imagination leads him to inhabit distant and exotic worlds. Sentimentality, good feelings, and the value of better death are the guides of action since they give validity to individual projects in a world of irrationalism. The selfish world of individual privacy is mysterious and contradictory; the universe contains deep secrets that can only be understood... Continue reading "Understanding Romanticism: Key Themes and Influential Figures" »

Mozart and Opera

Mozart stands as one of the greatest composers in the history of opera. By the age of 12, he had already composed two operas, Bastien und Bastienne and La finta semplice. While charming, these early works weren't fully representative of his genius, as Mozart was still developing his understanding of dramatic texts. From The Abduction from the Seraglio onward, Mozart's operas defy easy categorization, each possessing unique traits. He demonstrated an unparalleled ability to express the full spectrum of human emotion, often blending serious and comic elements. Other significant works include The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, and his final opera, The Magic Flute.

Haydn and Oratorio

Haydn's contributions to oratorio came later... Continue reading "Classical Era Composers: Mozart, Haydn, and Gluck's Masterpieces" »