Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Law & Jurisprudence

State the Difference Between a Negotiable Instrument and a Contract of Assignment

Negotiation

Negotiation implies the transfer of a negotiable instrument that takes place to make the transferee the holder of the instrument. It has effect by mere delivery in the case of a bearer instrument and endorsement and delivery in the case of an order instrument. The transferee has the right to sue the third party in his/her own name.

Assignment

Assignment alludes to the transfer of ownership of the negotiable instrument, in which the assignee gets the rights to receive the amount due on the instrument from the prior parties. It has effect by a written document duly signed by the transferor. The assignee does not have the right to sue third parties in his... Continue reading "Negotiable Instruments: Key Concepts and Definitions" »

English Language Essentials: Numbers and Grammar

Numbers 1-100

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Common Irregular Verbs: Present and Past Simple

Master these essential irregular verbs to improve your English fluency.

Present

Commercial Transactions: Legal Foundations

Defining a Commercial Transaction

The definition of a commercial transaction is founded upon a special Commercial Code and typically combines two core elements:

1. Definition of a merchant
2. Definition of a commercial transaction

Commercial Transaction Definition: Germany and France

In certain countries—Germany, for example—the emphasis is placed on the definition of the merchant; in others, such as France, the emphasis is on that of the commercial transaction. This latter criterion, the so-called objective test, was adopted in the 19th century for ideological reasons, as the French wanted to avoid any repetition of the pre-Revolutionary differentiation of legal rules according to the social condition of... Continue reading "Legal Definition and Regulation of Commercial Transactions" »

Introduction

Defamation is a complex area of law that intersects both tort and criminal law. The core principle behind defamation law is the protection of an individual's reputation, status, and profession from unjustified attacks. This principle has led to the establishment of legal actions against those who make harmful and untrue statements about others.

Meanings

Defamation refers to the act of damaging someone's reputation by making false statements about them, either verbally or in writing.

Relevant Provisions

Defamation is addressed in Sections 499 and 500 of the Pakistan Penal Code (PPC) 1860.

Definition

Defamation occurs when a person makes or publishes any statement, whether spoken, written, or through signs or representations, with the intention... Continue reading "Understanding Defamation Law: Protecting Your Reputation" »

TEXT TYPOLOGY

What is a text? A language unit, spoken or written, with different sizes, communicative functions, social purposes, types, genres, and linguistic features.

Narrative Texts

To tell a story.

• Sequences of events and time
• Fictional or nonfictional
• Narrator: first person (protagonist or witness) or third person (omniscient)

Examples: Myths, fairy tales, stories, science fiction, historical fiction, novels, newspaper reports.

Grammatical features: Dynamic verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, adverbials, and adverb clauses.

Scaffold: 1. Orientation: who, when, where is happening. 2. Complication: Triggers a series of events. 3. Sequence of events: characters react to the complication. 4. Resolution: Problem is solved. 5. Coda: Moral to the story.... Continue reading "Understanding Different Types of Texts: Narrative, Descriptive, Instructive, Argumentative, and Expository" »

1. Introduction

2. Relevant Provisions

3. Meaning of Hurt

4. Definition of Hurt u/ Sec 322(1)

5. Kinds of Hurt

I. Itlaf-udw

i.

Regulation of Commercial Transactions in Civil Law Countries

1. The Rhodian Law

   This law stipulated that losses incurred by a sea captain while attempting to save the ship and cargo from peril must be shared proportionately by all cargo owners and by the ship owner. This rule was applied throughout the Mediterranean.

2. Athens

   A capitalist would lend money for a marine trading expedition. The loan was secured by the ship and cargo, but repayment of the capital and payment of interest were conditional on the ship’s safe return. The interest rate, ranging from 24 to 36 percent, was considerably beyond normal rates, reflecting the highly speculative risks involved. This transaction later developed into marine insurance.

3. The Romans

   1. Civil Law and Foreign

Abetment of a thing

(ii)Engages with one or more other person or persons in any conspiracy for the doing of that thing, if an act or illicit oversight happens in pursuance of that conspiracy and in order to the doing of that thing; or

Abetment

Abetment can be committed only when there is positive evidence of either instigation or conspiracy or intentional aid. If none of these three elements stated above is available then abetment does not stand proved. Therefore, mere presence at the scene of the offence would not be sufficient to make out a case of abetment. NLR