Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Introduction to Middle English Linguistics

This text belongs to the period of ______ Middle English, more specifically the ______th century. This can be observed because of numerous morphosyntactic, lexical, orthographic, and phonological features that I will discuss in what follows.

Key Linguistic Definitions

Leveling: When the form or suffix of a word is leveled to other words in the same paradigm.

Extension: When the form or suffix of a word in one paradigm or category is extended to other paradigms or categories.

Weakening process: Unstressed vowels become /ə/ and later ∅.

• Nasals /n/ /η/ in final position become ∅.

Diacritic marking: Use of a grapheme to express the value of another.

Sandhi rules: Specialization phenomenon in which two forms... Continue reading "Middle English Linguistic Evolution and Morphosyntax" »

Sebastian F. Ramallo Asensio (Universidad de Murcia)

"Militum deinde quod eos non conlaudavit virtutem eruptio hostium, non altitudo moenium, Stagni inexplorata non vada, non castellum in high Tumulo situm, non munitissima arx deterruisset quo minus transcenderent omnia perrumperentque."

(T. Livy, XXVI, 48, 4)

This text from Livy's History of Rome clearly expresses components of the defensive apparatus of the city founded by Hasdrubal: the height of its walls, the unexplored shallow lagoon, the fortress located on a high hill, and the well-defended citadel. These components, coupled with the excellent conditions of its harbor and its strategic position on communication routes to Africa and Italy through the Balearic Islands (Appian, 19), made... Continue reading "The Defensive Walls of Carthago Nova: History and Archaeology" »

Neoclassicism: Reason and Didacticism in 18th Century Spain

Neoclassicism was a prominent artistic movement of the eighteenth century, deeply influenced by the Enlightenment. In this era, reason predominated over the senses, and literature adopted a strong didactic purpose, with the critical essay gaining significant prominence. The prevailing style was simple, valuing good taste and clarity.

Lyric Poetry in Neoclassicism

Neoclassical lyric poetry was characterized by being neither original nor overtly emotional. Instead, it valued didactic and utilitarian poetry. Juan Meléndez Valdés stands out as the poet who best summarized the neoclassical Anacreon, also addressing social issues in his works.

Prose: Modern Language and Social Critique

The... Continue reading "Spanish Literary Movements: Neoclassicism and Romanticism" »

In 1543, the works of Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega were published, marking the beginning of Petrarchan lyrics in Spain. This collection—consisting of a short poemario (40 sonnets, 3 eclogues, 5 songs, 3 elegies, and an epistle, in addition to eight octosyllabic poems of the cancionero type)—produced the most important revolution in Spanish lyric poetry and became the model for later poets.

Themes and Poetic Evolution

The central themes of Garcilaso's work include love, expressed through melancholy, sadness, and frustration due to the absence of the beloved. This is closely related to nature, which is presented in its perfection through the locus amoenus convention near the Tagus River. Other poems address themes such as friendship, fate,... Continue reading "Garcilaso de la Vega and the Spanish Lyric Revolution" »

English Pronouns Reference Table

Relative Pronouns and Prepositions

• WITH: con
• WHO: quien
• WHICH: que
• THAT: que
• WHOSE: cuyo
• WHERE: donde

Word Formation: Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs

Singular

Essential Tagalog Vocabulary Reference

Grammatical Markers

Subject Markers

• Ng/Mga: Marks singular (or plural) common nouns.
• Si/Sina: Marks the name of a singular (or plural) person/animal.
• Ako: I/Me
• Ikaw: You (singular)
• Siya/Sila: He/She/They
• Tayo: We (inclusive)
• Kami: We (exclusive)

Direct Object Markers

• Ng/Mga: Marks singular (or plural) common nouns or proper place or thing.
• Ni/Nina: Marks the name of a singular (or plural) person/animal.
• Akin/Ko: Mine
• Mo/Iyo/Ninyo: Yours
• Niya/Nila: His/Hers/Theirs
• Kaniya/Kanila: Ours

Location Markers

• Nasa: In, at, on (followed by a noun indicating location).
• Sa: In, at, on (followed by an action word).
• Taga-: From where (origin).

Time and Linking Words

Time Markers

• Noong: Past time marker.
• Tuwing: Habitual time marker.
• Sa: Future

Understanding the Art of Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion: the attempt to influence another with words. We usually think of rhetoric in terms of formal oratory—the public speeches you see politicians make on TV or the ones CEOs make at shareholders' meetings—but that is only one part.

• Rhetoric helps to push our ideas.
• Rhetoric serves to get things.
• Rhetoric reaches its tentacles into every corner of daily life.
• Rhetoric is what makes some arguments prosper and others fail.

Rhetoric is language at play. It is what persuades and pleases, inspires and tricks, thrills and misdirects. It is made of:

• Words and linked pairs.
• Groups of three and repeated phrases.
• Clear truths and vital declarations.
• Half-truths, fine-sounding meaninglessness, fake

Grace Nichols and the Immigrant Experience

The poem entitled "Wherever I Hang" was written by Grace Nichols, who was born in Georgetown, Guyana. She lived in a small village on the country's coast until her family moved to the city when she was eight years old. She worked as a teacher, a journalist, and in government information services before she immigrated to the UK in 1977. Much of her poetry is characterized by Caribbean rhythms and culture, influenced by Guyanese and Amerindian folklore. The poem "Wherever I Hang" is about an immigrant's encounter with England and the difficulties of moving from one culture to another; it is based on her personal experience.

Structure and Symbolism in the Poem

The poem's structure is defined by its different... Continue reading "Analysis of Wherever I Hang by Grace Nichols" »

Starlight's Promise: Finding Strength Together

The stars look down

Through Darkness and Despair

Through the dark, and through the hunger,
Through the night and through the fear.
Through the fight and years of hardship,
Through the storms and through the tears.

Unwavering Spirit, United We Stand

And although your feet are weary,
And although your soul is worn,
And although they'll try to break you,
And although you'll feel alone.

We will always stand together, in the dark, right through the storm,
We will stand shoulder to shoulder, to keep us warm.

Stars Witness Our Journey, Guide Our Future

And the stars look down on the mean and hungry,
And the stars look down and show the way.
And the stars look down and will stand together,
To see a day when... Continue reading "Starlight's Promise: Finding Strength Together" »