Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC and belonged to a patrician family claiming descent from Iulus, son of Aeneas. He entered politics early, beginning his career through the established Roman system. His political life became intertwined with the general history of Rome from 60 BC when he formed the First Triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. In 59 BC, he was appointed consul. After his consulate, he became proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul. In eight years, he conquered all of Gaul. He confronted Pompey and became dictator in 48 BC. Following the Civil War, he became the master of Rome. Caesar was assassinated by senators on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC.

Works

Julius Caesar's surviving works are two historical... Continue reading "Julius Caesar: Roman General and Statesman" »

Lyric Poetry: Characteristics and Forms

Key Characteristics of Lyric Poetry

• Highly subjective discourse, dominated by the emotive function of poetry.
• Expresses feelings, emotions, and ideas.
• Often focuses on a single aspect, brief in nature, and accumulates expressive resources.
• Typically occurs in verse, though works of lyrical prose (prose poetry) also exist.

Common Poetic Forms

• Popular Song: Addresses themes of love and religion, often featuring satirical monologues and a predominance of minor art forms.
• Petrarchan Song/Sonnet: Focuses on individualistic themes and adoration; often structured in multiple stanzas.
• Eclogue: Presents pastoral life and amorous affairs in a rural setting; metric structure is varied.
• Hymn: A song of praise dedicated to

Mario Vargas Llosa: Life and Major Themes

Mario Vargas Llosa is one of the most important Latin American writers of the twentieth century. He belongs to the group of writers that includes Jorge Luis Borges, Gabriel García Márquez, Julio Cortázar, Carlos Fuentes, and others who have shaped Latin American literature and made it known worldwide. Vargas Llosa remains very active; this is demonstrated by works such as The Notebooks of Don Rigoberto, Paradise in the Other Corner, and especially The Feast of the Goat, which are among his most significant works and include writings from the early 21st century.

Early Life and Education

Vargas Llosa was born in Peru in 1936. He studied at the Colegio Militar Leoncio Prado in Lima, an experience reflected... Continue reading "Mario Vargas Llosa: Novels, Themes and Controversies" »

The Greek Epic

Epic poetry sang the deeds of heroes, stories that occurred in a legendary past. It was transmitted orally from mouth to mouth, which also determined how to compose the introductory verses. With the alphabet, poets began to write what was transmitted orally. These exploits seem to have some historical background.

Within Greek epic literature, the work of two great authors stands out: Homer and Hesiod (8th - 7th century BC).

Homer

It was said that Homer was a poet who recited his poems and was represented as blind. His existence is wrapped up in legend. It seems that he lived in the late 8th century BC and was from Chios. He is the author of the first works of Greek literature that we have preserved: the Iliad and the Odyssey.

The

Miguel de Unamuno: Existentialism and the Nivola

Miguel de Unamuno wrote Niebla (a "Nivola" described as an internal monologue of the protagonist that raises questions about the relationship with the author and of men with God) and San Manuel Bueno, mártir (the story of a priest who continues to exercise his priesthood after losing his faith during an existential crisis).

Pío Baroja: The Pessimistic Voice of the Generation

Pío Baroja was a pessimistic, solitary man, critical of society, and anticlerical. He defended the idea that writing is an innate talent that cannot be learned. His style is entertaining, featuring short sentences and paragraphs with fluid, credible dialogues that avoid heavy rhetoric. His work includes trilogies such as... Continue reading "Masterpieces of the Generation of 98 and Modernism" »

Lyrical Poetry: Culteranismo vs. Conceptismo

Culteranismo (Góngora)

A movement focused on formal complexity and aesthetic beauty.

• Style: Highly formal, emphasizing the beauty of language.
• Techniques: Extensive use of hyperbaton, Latinisms, and complex metaphors.
• Key Author: Luis de Góngora.

Conceptismo (Quevedo, Gracián)

A style emphasizing intellectual depth and verbal wit.

• Style: Focuses on games of verbal wit and intellectual association.
• Techniques: Frequent use of semantic figures such as irony, paradox, and antithesis.
• Key Authors: Francisco de Quevedo, Baltasar Gracián.

Narrative of the Golden Age

The Picaresque Novel (Novela Picaresca)

A genre appropriate for transmitting a pessimistic and critical vision of the era, reflecting social disappointment... Continue reading "Literary Movements and Masters of the Spanish Baroque" »

Ancient Greek lyric poetry encompasses a rich tapestry of forms, themes, and poetic voices. Unlike epic poetry, which focused on heroic narratives, lyric verse delved into personal experiences, emotions, and societal observations, often performed with musical accompaniment.

Key Themes in Ancient Greek Lyric Poetry

• Banquet: Themes often included sex, joy, the beauty of life, and sensual love, celebrated during symposia.
• Death: Frequently expressed through the solemn and reflective elegy form.
• Human Conduct: Addressed justice, social inequality (as seen in Solon's work), the importance of friendship, and the inherent uncertainty of human destiny.
• Satire: Portrayed loneliness and aimed for social reform through sharp wit and criticism.

Iambic Poetry:

The Languages of Spain: A Rich Linguistic Heritage

Spain is a country with a vibrant linguistic landscape, home to several co-official languages alongside Castilian Spanish. Each language boasts a unique history, evolution, and cultural significance.

Castilian Spanish: Origins and Evolution

Castilian is a Romance language derived from a Vulgar Latin dialect, with influences from other innovative peninsular linguistic trends. It emerged as a distinct language in the northern Cantabrian mountain range of the Iberian Peninsula, specifically between La Rioja and an independent Castile. Its geographical location fostered linguistic influence from neighboring regions, particularly from Basque.

Its prominence grew significantly because Alfonso X made... Continue reading "Spain's Rich Linguistic Tapestry: Origins and Features" »

The 12th Century: A Period of Transformation

The 12th century marked a time of major structural changes in Western economic and social development. This era saw significant commercial and economic improvements, alongside the appearance of new cultural forms. Pilgrimages contributed significantly to this increased dynamism as people sought spiritual benefits. During this time, new artistic styles developed: the Romanesque and the Gothic. A new human model emerged—cultured, refined, and appreciative of art and music—giving rise to the birth of courtly culture. Among the main languages used in the courts, the influence of King Alfonso II stands out.

General Characteristics of Troubadour Lyric

Courtly Love (Fin'amor) flourished between the 12th... Continue reading "Courtly Love Traditions and the Poetry of Ausiàs March" »

Latin American Fiction: Novel and Short Stories

The Latin American narrative underwent significant transformations during the first half of the twentieth century, particularly until the 1940s. This period laid the groundwork for the rich literary traditions that followed.

Latin American Novel Evolution

Early 20th Century Narrative (Until 1940s)

This initial period distinguishes three main stages:

• The 'Earth Novel'

  This genre describes nature and its powerful influence over man. Notable examples include Rómulo Gallegos's Doña Bárbara and José Eustasio Rivera's La Vorágine.

• The 'Indian Novel'

  This genre criticizes the social situation of indigenous peoples and the injustices they suffered at the hands of the 'white man.' Key works include Jorge