Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC and belonged to a patrician family claiming descent from Iulus, son of Aeneas. He entered politics early, beginning his career through the established Roman system. His political life became intertwined with the general history of Rome from 60 BC when he formed the First Triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. In 59 BC, he was appointed consul. After his consulate, he became proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul. In eight years, he conquered all of Gaul. He confronted Pompey and became dictator in 48 BC. Following the Civil War, he became the master of Rome. Caesar was assassinated by senators on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC.

Works

Julius Caesar's surviving works are two historical... Continue reading "Julius Caesar: Roman General and Statesman" »

Lyric Poetry: Characteristics and Forms

Key Characteristics of Lyric Poetry

• Highly subjective discourse, dominated by the emotive function of poetry.
• Expresses feelings, emotions, and ideas.
• Often focuses on a single aspect, brief in nature, and accumulates expressive resources.
• Typically occurs in verse, though works of lyrical prose (prose poetry) also exist.

Common Poetic Forms

• Popular Song: Addresses themes of love and religion, often featuring satirical monologues and a predominance of minor art forms.
• Petrarchan Song/Sonnet: Focuses on individualistic themes and adoration; often structured in multiple stanzas.
• Eclogue: Presents pastoral life and amorous affairs in a rural setting; metric structure is varied.
• Hymn: A song of praise dedicated to

The Greek Epic

Epic poetry sang the deeds of heroes, stories that occurred in a legendary past. It was transmitted orally from mouth to mouth, which also determined how to compose the introductory verses. With the alphabet, poets began to write what was transmitted orally. These exploits seem to have some historical background.

Within Greek epic literature, the work of two great authors stands out: Homer and Hesiod (8th - 7th century BC).

Homer

It was said that Homer was a poet who recited his poems and was represented as blind. His existence is wrapped up in legend. It seems that he lived in the late 8th century BC and was from Chios. He is the author of the first works of Greek literature that we have preserved: the Iliad and the Odyssey.

The

Ancient Greek lyric poetry encompasses a rich tapestry of forms, themes, and poetic voices. Unlike epic poetry, which focused on heroic narratives, lyric verse delved into personal experiences, emotions, and societal observations, often performed with musical accompaniment.

Key Themes in Ancient Greek Lyric Poetry

• Banquet: Themes often included sex, joy, the beauty of life, and sensual love, celebrated during symposia.
• Death: Frequently expressed through the solemn and reflective elegy form.
• Human Conduct: Addressed justice, social inequality (as seen in Solon's work), the importance of friendship, and the inherent uncertainty of human destiny.
• Satire: Portrayed loneliness and aimed for social reform through sharp wit and criticism.

Iambic Poetry:

The Languages of Spain: A Rich Linguistic Heritage

Spain is a country with a vibrant linguistic landscape, home to several co-official languages alongside Castilian Spanish. Each language boasts a unique history, evolution, and cultural significance.

Castilian Spanish: Origins and Evolution

Castilian is a Romance language derived from a Vulgar Latin dialect, with influences from other innovative peninsular linguistic trends. It emerged as a distinct language in the northern Cantabrian mountain range of the Iberian Peninsula, specifically between La Rioja and an independent Castile. Its geographical location fostered linguistic influence from neighboring regions, particularly from Basque.

Its prominence grew significantly because Alfonso X made... Continue reading "Spain's Rich Linguistic Tapestry: Origins and Features" »

Latin American Fiction: Novel and Short Stories

The Latin American narrative underwent significant transformations during the first half of the twentieth century, particularly until the 1940s. This period laid the groundwork for the rich literary traditions that followed.

Latin American Novel Evolution

Early 20th Century Narrative (Until 1940s)

This initial period distinguishes three main stages:

• The 'Earth Novel'

  This genre describes nature and its powerful influence over man. Notable examples include Rómulo Gallegos's Doña Bárbara and José Eustasio Rivera's La Vorágine.

• The 'Indian Novel'

  This genre criticizes the social situation of indigenous peoples and the injustices they suffered at the hands of the 'white man.' Key works include Jorge

Avant-Garde Movements in Art and Literature

Key Features of the Avant-Garde

Avant-garde refers to the movements in art developed in the early 20th century with a desire to resist the concept of art based on imitating reality. These movements retained a taste for the exceptional and unusual, and their ideological programs were broadcast in magazines. The characteristics that were common in art and literature are:

• Anti-Realism and Autonomy of Art: Rejection of reality, removing any element from the work linking art to the real. In poetry, the ideal of pure poetry creates a purely poetic world.
• Irrationalism: The cult of the image establishes relationships between people and objects that are not logically given. The texts are permeated with irrationalism.

The Renewal of 20th Century Spanish Theater

In the early decades of the twentieth century, several attempts were made to renew the theatrical landscape. Faced with the need to engage the public, dramatists had two options:

Dramatists' Choices: Commercial vs. Innovative Theater

• Commercial Theater: Theater designed to please the public—commercial, bourgeois, and without criticism. This was sometimes called the "Triumphant Theater."
• Innovative Theater: Theater that was surprising, provocative, critical, and anti-bourgeois. This was the truly innovative path.

The Triumphant Theater (Commercial Realism)

The Triumphant Theater followed three main trends, often adhering to the realism of the nineteenth century and governed by the requirements of the public:... Continue reading "20th Century Spanish Theater: Valle-Inclán's Esperpento and Lorca's Rural Tragedy" »

PERSONAL FORMS: Times as Indicative Simple Compounds

Present Perfect

I am loved, you are loved, he is loved, we are loved, you are loved, they are loved. I've been loved, you've been loved, he has been loved.

Past Perfect

We were loved, you were loved, they had been loved.

Past Imperfect

I was loved, you were loved, he was loved, we were loved, you were loved, they were loved.

Pluperfect

I had been loved, you had been loved, he had been loved, we had been loved, you had been loved, they had been loved.

Pretérito Perfecto Simple

I loved, you loved, he loved, we loved, you loved, they loved.

Pretérito Anterior

I had been loved, you had been loved, he had been loved, we had been loved, you had been loved, they had been loved.

Future Perfect

I will be loved,... Continue reading "Mastering English Verb Tenses: A Comprehensive Study" »