Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Roman Entertainment Structures

Amphitheaters

Battles between gladiators and animals were held, as were naumachiae (simulated naval battles). They had an elliptical plan. In the center stood the arena, covered in sand, where the pit was located. The amphitheater in Pompeii is the most ancient. Other examples include those in Tarragona, Mérida, and Italica in Spain, and those in Arles and Nîmes in France. In Rome, the Flavian Amphitheater, known as the "Colosseum," is the most famous.

Circuses

Buildings for chariot races. They had a long and narrow plan, with the spina (central barrier) in the middle. The cavea (seating area) was theater-like, surrounding the arena. The most important was the Circus Maximus in Rome, built during the time of Caesar.... Continue reading "Ancient Roman Architecture and Engineering" »

Modernism in Spanish Poetry

The Influence of the Generation of '98

Modernist poets embraced the spirit of the Generation of '98, both thematically and stylistically. They explored national issues, the existential reality of Castile, and adopted a more reflective, analytical writing style.

Juan Ramón Jiménez

A key figure in Modernism and a significant innovator, Jiménez's poetic journey began with vibrant Modernism tinged with introspection. His early works, like Solitudes (1908), explored beauty and nature. He later transitioned to "pure poetry," stripping away sensory details and anecdote to create timeless, symbolic verse. Diary of a Newly Married Poet is a notable work from this period.

Antonio Machado

Machado, a progressive humanist, blended... Continue reading "Modernism and Generation of '27 in Spanish Poetry" »

The Middle Ages: A Historical Context

The Middle Ages began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD) and concluded with the occupation of Constantinople by the Turks (1453 AD), spanning almost ten centuries. The High Middle Ages, between the 5th and 12th centuries AD, witnessed the formation of the Romance languages. The birth of new languages entailed the appearance of relevant literature, which was only orally transmitted during its initial period, becoming written from the 12th century onwards. During the Late Middle Ages (12th to 15th centuries), Romance languages gained ground and slowly replaced Latin as languages suitable for culture.

Medieval Lyric Poetry

During the Middle Ages, lyric poetry, expressing personal feelings and... Continue reading "Medieval Lyric Poetry: Troubadours, Genres, and Key Figures" »

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Life and Adventures (1547-1616)

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (Alcalá de Henares, 1547 - Madrid, 1616) was a prominent figure in Spanish literature. He was a disciple of the writer Juan López de Hoyos. In 1569, he moved to Italy, where he served Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva.

He joined the army and in 1571 participated in the pivotal Battle of Lepanto, where he was severely injured, losing the use of his left hand. This earned him the enduring nickname "El Manco de Lepanto" (The Cripple of Lepanto).

Upon his return to the Iberian Peninsula in 1575, he was captured by Barbary pirates off the coast of Catalonia. Cervantes and his brother were imprisoned in Algiers. His family could only afford the ransom for his brother,... Continue reading "Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Life, Captivity, and Poetic Works" »

Characteristics of Romanticism

• Rupture with Neoclassicism: Romanticism represents a break from Neoclassical rules, emphasizing a desire for freedom.
• Evocative Settings: Its settings often feature nocturnal scenes, the irrational power of nature (sea, storms), ruins, forests, and cemeteries, emphasizing mystery and emotion over reason.
• New Concept of the Individual: It introduced a new conception of the individual, often portrayed in confrontation with society, sometimes leading to tragic ends like suicide.
• Search for a New Reality: Romantics sought a reality perceived as more beautiful, dignified, and poetic, accessed through imagination.

Romantic Themes

• Key themes include: individuality and privacy, freedom, rebellion, and the significance of landscape,

20th Century Latin American Novels

Modernism in Latin American novels of the twentieth century evolved from the beginning of the century, with various currents that approached the American experience. Notable works include Don Segundo Sombra by Ricardo Güiraldes and Doña Bárbara by Rómulo Gallegos.

The Social Novel

The social novel depicts social conflict within Latin American countries, particularly highlighting the Mexican Revolution.

The Indianist Social Novel

The Indianist social novel focuses on the problems of indigenous peoples and mestizos, who constituted the majority of the population in some areas and suffered oppression and exploitation. An example is Huasipungo by Jorge Icaza, characterized by its realistic and naturalistic style.... Continue reading "20th Century Latin American Novels: Modernism and Magic Realism" »

St. John of the Cross

A Carmelite friar who, along with St. Teresa of Ávila (Teresa of Jesus), participated in the reform of the Carmelite Order. He studied in Salamanca.

His poetry often follows the line of Garcilaso. He wrote notes comparing the mystical vision and experience of God to the union of two lovers, which makes his work highly allegorical. His three major works include:

• Dark Night of the Soul
• Spiritual Canticle
• Living Flame of Love

Asceticism and Mysticism

Asceticism involves a lifestyle based on the rejection of material goods, characterized by simplicity, humility, and the absence of luxuries.

For the ascetic, self-sacrifice is the first step towards mysticism, whose aim is the union of the soul with God through three ways (or stages)... Continue reading "Spanish Renaissance & Baroque Poets: Key Figures & Styles" »

Ramon Llull

Born in Mallorca in 1232. His primary mission was to convert unbelievers, writing books to spread the Christian faith, and creating schools to train missionaries. Died in 1315.

Characteristics of Llull's Prose

• Use of subordination
• Achievement of maturity in the Catalan language
• Rigorous and precise syntax
• Rich vocabulary
• Use of Catalan to address issues previously reserved for Latin

Narrative Works

Includes Llibre d'Evast e Blanquerna and the Book of Wonders (Llibre de meravelles). Their purpose is to illustrate his teaching; these books tell the journey of young men in search of ideals.

Didactic, Philosophical, and Religious Work

Promotes Christian piety and propagates his 'Art'.

Political and Social Themes

Yearning for a better society with... Continue reading "Medieval Catalan Literature: Llull, March, and Genres" »

The Contemporary Novel: Context and Influences

Social and Cultural Transformations

• Advances in technology and science (e.g., automobiles).
• Rapid industrial and urban growth.
• Crisis of Positivism and Rationalism.

Changes in Spain: The 1898 Disaster

• The Disaster of 1898.
• General backwardness of the country.
• Calls for material reforms.

The Generation of '98: Defining Spanish Literature

The term "Generation of '98" designates a group of Spanish writers who began publishing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This name originates from a significant historical event: the Disaster of 1898.

Key Characteristics and Concerns

All these writers shared a common attitude of protest against society and the prevailing state of literature. Among their primary concerns... Continue reading "The Generation of '98: Literary and Historical Context" »

Spain in the 18th Century

Spain was in deep crisis due to the War of the Spanish Succession. Philip V of Bourbon finally took the throne. His reign, along with that of Ferdinand VI, led to greater stability. During the reign of Charles IV, Godoy was prominent, whose poor policies had serious consequences. In this century, Spain experienced an economic upswing. Enlightened reforms sought to improve the economy, promoting the figure of the merchant, but industry remained poor. Society was still based on estates, with a loosely organized bourgeoisie (composed of artisans and merchants), peasants, beggars, slaves, etc. Despite reforms intended to undermine these differences, they persisted. The reforms also focused on education and the economy.... Continue reading "Spanish Literature and History: 18th and 19th Centuries" »