Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Biography of Alfred Nobel

Alfred Nobel was born into a family of engineers. When he was nine years old, his family moved to Russia, where he and his brothers received an excellent education in natural sciences and humanities. He spent much of his youth in St. Petersburg, where his father installed an arms factory, which went bankrupt in 1859.

He returned to Sweden in 1863, completing the investigations there that had begun in the field of explosives: in 1863, he created a detonator controlled by the explosions of nitroglycerin (invented in 1846 by the Italian Ascanio Sobrero). In 1865, he perfected the system with a detonator of mercury, and in 1867, he created dynamite, a plastic explosive resulting from nitroglycerin absorbed in a porous solid... Continue reading "Alfred Nobel: Biography of the Inventor of Dynamite" »

Early 20th Century Spanish Politics

Regenerationism and Political Reform

Polavieja Government

Attempted political system reform and tax reform, facing opposition.

Maura Government

Implemented the Electoral Act of 1907 and social laws. Forged an agreement with Catalan nationalists but also oversaw the harsh repression of the Tragic Week.

Canalejas Government

Introduced further reforms, including labor laws (the "Padlock Law") and changes to the tax system. Canalejas was assassinated by an anarchist in 1912.

Opposition Forces

• Republicanism
• Carlism and Traditionalism
• Working Class Movement (PSOE, UGT, and CNT)

The Evolution of Catalanism

Political Organizations

• Regionalist League Hegemony
• Catalan Solidarity Coalition (1906)
• Strengthening of the Catalan Republicans

Commonwealth

**3. Carrero Blanco's Death**

On December 20, 1973, the date set by the Public Order Court (TOP) to hold the trial of the national coordinator of the Workers' Commissions (CCOO), the Txikia commando of ETA killed Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco in Madrid. With this terrorist attack, the Basque organization ETA, which assumed responsibility for the assassination later known as *"Operation Ogre"*, triggered a crisis in the ruling coalition's politics. Admiral Carrero had facilitated the arrival of technocrats to power in 1957 and demonstrated his influence over Franco's designation of Juan Carlos as the dictator's successor to the Head of State. Like the general, he always opposed the creation of political associations and the construction of autonomous... Continue reading "Franco's Death & Spain's Transition: Key Events" »

The Economy in Ancient Greece

Agriculture and Livestock

Initially, the economy was based on family farming. Livestock was limited to the domestic sphere, and gradually agriculture, specifically wheat, vine, and olive trees, gained ground.

Commerce

Commerce was gaining importance in Greece, concentrated around the port. Economic prosperity led to increased population, resulting in migrations and the founding of colonies in the Mediterranean. The exchange of goods by sea began, and some factories were established, primarily employing slaves.

The Monetary System

a) Monetary unit: drachma

b) Fractional units:

• Obol: 1/6 drachma
• Half-obol: 1/2 obol

c) Multiples:

• Didrachm: 2 drachmas
• Tetradrachm: 4 drachmas
• Decadrachm: 10 drachmas

d) Units of calculation:

• Mina:

October Revolution of 1917

The Days of October

The socialist revolution began in Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg). Leon Trotsky, opposing the Provisional Government led by Kerensky, organized the Petrograd Soviet. Uprisings of sailors and workers, with the essential participation of the Red Guard (founded by Trotsky), culminated in the assault on the Winter Palace.

Revolutionary Measures: State and Leninism

Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik party, led the political action and dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. A new revolutionary government, the Council of People's Commissars, headed by Lenin, was elected. A new state structure emerged: the All-Russian Congress of Soviets as the legislature, and the Council of People's Commissars... Continue reading "October Revolution and the Birth of the USSR" »

Fascism in Italy

Fascism arose in Italy due to widespread dissatisfaction with government policies after World War I and the prevailing economic and social instability. Fascists aimed to combat communism, directly intervening in social life and suppressing individual freedoms. Led by Benito Mussolini, Fascism proposed land reform to address economic and social issues.

Nazism in Germany

Nazism was a German political movement that emerged during a critical period of instability after World War I, when the government was unable to resolve the nation's problems. Led by Adolf Hitler, the Nazi party advocated for racial supremacy and the establishment of an authoritarian regime to eradicate communism. Nazism asserted that one man should hold absolute... Continue reading "Rise of Fascism, Nazism, and Communism: Causes and Impacts" »

German Blitzkrieg: Early Victories

With the invasion of Poland, a new kind of war emerged: Blitzkrieg, a war based on surprise and rapid movement of the German army (Wehrmacht) with their tanks and armored divisions (Panzer), combined with air support. The purpose was to overwhelm the enemy and destroy its infrastructure. In three weeks, they arrived in Warsaw. Part of the territory was incorporated into the Reich, and the other part formed a government under Nazi control. The Soviet army occupied eastern Poland, continued its expansion into Finland, and spread its influence in the Baltic Republics. The Nazis set their sights on northern Europe due to its military importance and the need for Swedish iron ore for the German industry (Sweden was... Continue reading "World War II: Germany's Blitzkrieg and the Allied Victory" »

Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)
The main causes were: widespread social tensions, the instability of successive governments, fear of regionalism (especially Catalan political movements), the disastrous Rif War, and military ambitions. It had the support of the oligarchy, middle classes, and some sectors of republicanism. The dictatorship's ideology was based on nationalism, emphasis on the public sphere, the influence of fascism (particularly Mussolini's Italy), and a program of national regeneration (homeland, religion, and monarchy). It can be divided into two stages:

• Military Directory (1923-1925):

  A government formed by nine generals, dissolving the courts, banning political parties and unions, and dissolving the Catalan Commonwealth.

The Cánovas System: The Constitution of 1876

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo was the creator of the political system of the Bourbon Restoration. On December 1, 1874, Alfonso XII published the Manifesto of Sandhurst (prepared by Cánovas). In theory, it was a response to congratulations received on his birthday. The manifesto stated that the only solution to the problems of Spain, "from the working classes to the highest", lay in the restoration of the traditional Bourbon monarchy. It outlined the principles of the future proclamation of the monarchy as being in dialogue, constitutional, and democratic, with a willingness to integrate much of the political progress achieved during the six-year period and not carry out political reprisals.

Cánovas'

The End of the USSR: From Andropov to Gorbachev

Leonid Brezhnev died in 1982 and was replaced by Yuri Andropov, who was 69 years old and the head of the KGB. His election highlighted two important factors: firstly, it demonstrated the rigidness of a generation formed in the early years of the Cold War and under Stalinism, often referred to as the Gerontocracy. Secondly, it showed the intensity of the symbiosis between the party and the secret services.

Andropov attempted to clean up the system by forcing senior officials, including ministers, to resign. He even launched a corruption probe against Brezhnev's family. For workers, his only policy was the fight against absenteeism, with a focus on discipline and exemplary punishment. However, Andropov'... Continue reading "The Fall of the USSR: Andropov to Gorbachev" »