Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

As soon as there was resistance from the Republic, it had a social base on which it was sustained. The power of the Union and Progress, led by General Serrano, attempted to stabilize a conservative republic. However, the social base had opted for the Alfonsina solution: the return of a new model of liberalism with an endemic precedent. This included the partisan and exclusionary nature of moderate military interventionism in politics and the proliferation of civil strife. There were two objectives: to develop a constitution that structured a bipartisan political system and to pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

The first policy measure was the convening of elections for a Constituent Assembly, as the constitution... Continue reading "The Restoration of the Monarchy in Spain: 1876-1898" »

Church Patronage of the Arts

Because they wanted to express their love of God by spending money to build and decorate churches. Others hoped that offerings of beautiful works of art would lead God to forgive their sins. Some Popes sponsored the arts because they hoped to inspire loyalty to the Church.

Challenges to Papal Power

Because they also disliked the power of the Pope and they wanted to collect their own taxes and make their own laws. They wanted the same power as the leaders of Italy's city-states.

Navigation Tools for Exploration

Because with the compass they could find out which direction they were traveling and they measured their latitude with an astrolabe.

Seeking New Trade Routes to Asia

Because they thought they would discover a new... Continue reading "Reasons, Rulers, and Renaissance Figures" »

Tsarist Russia and the Path to Revolution

In Tsarist Russia, the Tsar held absolute power. The Duma, a parliament, existed but could be dissolved at the Tsar's will.

1905: Russo-Japanese War and Bloody Sunday

The Russian army suffered defeat against Japanese troops. On January 9th, a peaceful demonstration at the Tsar's Winter Palace was violently suppressed, resulting in Bloody Sunday. Workers organized into soviets (popular assemblies). The October Manifesto was signed but later violated by the Tsar.

World War I and the Fall of the Tsar

Russia entered World War I in 1914 unprepared, leading to numerous defeats. In 1917, widespread demonstrations and a general strike forced the Tsar to abdicate, leading to a provisional government.

The Bolshevik

Fascist Ideology

Fascism advocated for a totalitarian state that controlled all aspects of life. The state had complete oversight, eliminating individual freedom, equality, and rights, and rejecting the separation of powers. It supported a one-party dictatorship based on the principle of leadership. Fascism promoted a society founded on hierarchy, order, obedience, and authority. It was radically anti-communist and anti-capitalist, aiming for a national socialism that would eliminate class divisions. Aggressive nationalism, expansionism, and militarism were central tenets. Fascists were often racist, asserting the inferiority of people of color and the superiority of the Aryan race, which they believed had the right to subjugate other races.... Continue reading "Understanding Fascism and the Weimar Republic" »

Medieval Christianity: Faith and Society

During the Middle Ages, Christianity was the main religion in Europe. The Christian territories became known as Christendom. The Church affected all aspects of life.

Daily Life and Religious Practices

The rites of baptism, marriage, and death were carried out by the clergy. Christians had to go to church and pray every day. They also had to:

• Fast during Lent
• Attend confession
• Receive communion
• If possible, make a pilgrimage to a holy place to obtain eternal life.

Church bells regulated the peasants' working hours, and the calendar followed religious holidays. Years were counted from the time of Christ's birth.

The Church's Extensive Power

The Church held great social, political, and economic power. A significant... Continue reading "Medieval Christianity and Church Influence" »

The Spanish War of Independence

The disorganized nature of the initial resistance seemed to confirm forecasts that Napoleon's invasion would be quick and easy. However, the resilience of cities such as Girona, Zaragoza, and Tarragona, subjected to sieges by French troops, pinned down the French army and prevented progress towards the Levant.

Moreover, the defeat of the invaders in Bailén forced José I to leave Madrid, and much of the imperial army retreated north of the Ebro. Napoleon went to Spain in November to lead the counteroffensive. In January 1809, Joseph I returned to Madrid, and by 1809, French rule spread throughout Spain.

Guerrilla Warfare and Spanish Resistance

Resistance to the invasion was carried out by the guerrillas, small local... Continue reading "The Spanish War of Independence: Resistance and Ideologies" »

The Rise of Nazi Germany

Post-World War I Germany and Economic Crisis

In Germany, in 1918, after the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the Weimar Republic was proclaimed. It had to assume the military defeat and the harsh peace terms imposed by the victors.

The economic situation was very difficult due to war debts and the heavy reparations Germany had to pay the victors. This provoked a crisis, leading to rampant inflation, the depreciation of the German mark, and the closure of small businesses, thus increasing unemployment.

The Rise of the Nazi Party and Hitler's Ascent

Adolf Hitler founded the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP).

The difficult economic situation resulting from the Great Depression of 1929 and increasing social malaise... Continue reading "Nazi Germany: Totalitarianism and Its Foundations" »

The 1959 Stabilization Plan and Economic Modernization

The government that was formed in February 1957, largely composed of members of Opus Dei (technocrats), committed firmly to a clear liberalizing policy aimed at economic modernization. This led to the implementation of the Stabilization Plan. This Plan was published in 1959, facing opposition from the Falange and Franco’s own indebted sectors.

Implementation and Objectives

The Stabilization Plan consisted of a package of economic measures whose objective was to create healthy economic development and better integration into the world market. The International Monetary Fund granted a loan valued at U.S. $544 million dollars.

Through the Stabilization Plan, the government intended to liberalize... Continue reading "Spain's Economic Transformation: The 1959 Stabilization Plan" »

The Emergence of Early Civilizations

As mankind began to develop more complex ways of life, and as cities increased in size and complexity, a new type of society emerged. These societies are known today as civilizations.

Defining Civilization

A civilization is a nation or people that share a common culture, common laws, a common economy, and typically a common faith or religion.

Developmental Milestones

For thousands of years, mankind survived by finding food and shelter for themselves and their families. Eventually, specialization emerged: one person could specialize in making pottery, while another could specialize in weaving cloth. The quality of their pottery, cloth, or other products became increasingly better.

This development led to several... Continue reading "Ancient Civilizations: Society, Governance, and Culture" »

The Spanish Habsburgs and Their Validos

The seventeenth century was a time of profound political crisis in Spain. The Spanish kings of the House of Habsburg—Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II—are often referred to as the 'Spanish Habsburgs' or 'Austrias'. Often perceived as weak or disengaged, these monarchs largely entrusted the government to their favorite nobles, known as validos or 'privados'. The valido held a political office akin to a prime minister, advising the monarch, supervising councils, and controlling government documents.

Philip III delegated power to the Duke of Lerma, who became notoriously corrupt and wealthy. Lerma notably moved the court to Valladolid (1600-1606) and oversaw the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.

Philip