Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Council of Europe: A Champion of Democracy and Human Rights

The Council of Europe is a regional, multilateral organization established in 1949 by the Treaty of London. It is headquartered in Strasbourg, France, and has 47 member countries. It is important to note that the Council of Europe is not an integration process.

Objectives

The Council of Europe's primary objectives are to promote freedom and create a democratic and legal area based on the principles outlined in the European Convention on Human Rights.

The Convention, established in 1950, is the Council's main achievement. Any country wishing to become a member must ratify it, organize free elections, abolish the death penalty, and guarantee the rule of law. It is the first instrument to... Continue reading "Council of Europe: History, Structure, and Human Rights" »

The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire

Revolution:

A dramatic change that often includes the fall of a government or the transformation of a social and economic order.

Napoleon Bonaparte:

Military commander who took power in France in 1799 and was emperor from 1804 until his defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

Napoleonic Empire:

Territory conquered and controlled by Napoleon between 1804 and 1815.

The Beginning of the Modern Age

The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 marked the start of the Modern Age.

Before the French Revolution, the enlightened despots failed to make the political, economic, and social changes that Enlightenment thinkers had proposed. These changes were violently imposed by revolutionaries, as reforms had failed.

• A political

The Republic (1873-1874)

After the abdication, the Cortes voted the Republic as the new form of government. However, the regime was unstable, headed by a political minority, the Republicans, who were themselves divided into those in favor of a unitary state, those in favor of a federal one, and finally the supporters of a presidential Republic.

These disputes undermined the credibility of the Republic. Therefore, the monarchists (such as Cánovas del Castillo), supporting the candidature of Isabella's son, Prince Alfonso of Bourbon, began to pave the peaceful way to the restoration of the monarchy, which they wanted to identify with political tradition and stability.

Eventually, it was a military coup (led by General Pavia) that really ended the... Continue reading "Spanish History: Republic, Restoration, and Canovist System" »

The Reign of Charles V (1516-1556)

Inheritance and Early Rule

Charles V inherited a vast empire. On his mother's side, he received the Crowns of Aragon and Castile, along with territories in America, Italy, and Africa. From his father's side, he inherited lands as a member of the Habsburg dynasty, including territories in Germany, the Low Countries, Luxembourg, and eastern France.

The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521)

In 1520, the Revolt of the Comuneros erupted in Castilian cities. The uprising was sparked by opposition to Charles V's policies, particularly his high taxes and his focus on foreign affairs. The royal army ultimately defeated the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar in 1521, and their leaders were executed.

Financial Challenges

Charles... Continue reading "The Spanish Empire Under Charles V and Philip II" »

Chartism: A Working-Class Movement

Chartism was a working-class movement that emerged in 19th-century Britain, advocating for political reform and social justice. The working-class people, who were not among the wealthiest, aimed to create a fairer society for themselves and others like them. They were named Chartists after the People's Charter.

Origins of Chartism

Chartism emerged in London in 1836 and quickly expanded across the country, with its most active period between 1838 and 1848. The Chartists publicized their demands through meetings and pamphlets. Several factors contributed to its rise:

• Rapid urbanization in British society led to unsanitary living conditions and long working hours for the working class.
• Only a small portion of the

Winston Churchill's Leadership During World War II

1. Early Challenges and Controversies

In fact, Churchill's job was to ensure the safe arrival of British merchant ships, which were hunted down by German U-boats. However, instead of listening to the key experts at the Navy, Churchill decided to seek out and attack the U-boats, leaving the merchant ships without protection. To convince the public that the British Navy was on top of the U-boat threat, Churchill publicly lied, claiming that the British Navy managed to sink half of the U-boats sent by Germany, while knowing for a fact that they had only sunk 9 out of 57 U-boats. When his claims were questioned or challenged by experts on German submarines, Churchill fired them. Churchill's ruthless... Continue reading "Winston Churchill's Leadership in WWII" »

Los términos bipolarización y Guerra Fría, que están bastante relacionados, se utilizan para definir la división del mundo después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en la que dos bloques antagónicos y las relaciones creadas entre ellos. Los bloques eran:

a) Uno liderado por Estados Unidos, o bloque occidental, capitalista, democrático o norteamericano.

b) Otro liderado por la URSS, bloque oriental, comunista o bloque soviético.

En este contexto, cada bloque intenta:

a) Mantener su área de influencia con intervenciones constantes para equilibrar la influencia del bloque oponente en esta área.

b) Amenazar al oponente mediante una carrera creciente de armamento, incluyendo armas nucleares.

c) El equilibrio militar y de armamento (equilibrio del... Continue reading "La bipolarización y la Guerra Fría" »

Chapter 13

1. Manifest Destiny (Z): The belief that American expansion westward was divinely sanctioned.
2. John O’Sullivan (Q): Newspaper editor who coined the term "manifest destiny."
3. Mountain Men (K): American fur trappers who blazed western trails.
4. Donner Party (C, L): Group stranded on their way to California, resorting to cannibalism due to their own mistakes and poor decisions.
5. John Charles Fremont (B): Known as "The Pathfinder," he encouraged westward migration with reports of his explorations.
6. American Settlers (M): Settled in Texas for fertile, inexpensive land, causing concern for the Mexican government.
7. Anglo Texans (G): Rebelled against Mexico due to fears of slave emancipation.
8. Battle of the Alamo (D): A costly victory for the Mexicans.
9. Sam

1492 (Colon discovered America)

1701-1713 (Spanish War of Succession)

1750 (Industrial revolution started)

1766 (Matxinada of Azpeitia and Azkoitia, Wheat)

1780-1850 (1st industrial revolution)

18th century (Enlightenment ideas)

1789 (The French revolution started + tome the bastille)

1791 (Women rights)

1792 (French republic was established + The war of convention)

1793 (Louis XVI was guillotined)

1799-1804 (Consolate)

1804-1814 (Directory)

1812 (The 1st constitution of Spain was established)

1815 (The congress of Vienna)

1820, 1830, 1848 (The revolution in Europe, 1848 spring of nation)

1850-1945 (2nd industrial revolution)

1874 (The Spanish first republic)

1914 (Assassination in Sarajevo)

1914-1918 (WW1)

1917 (Russian Revolution)

1919 (Treaty of Versailles)... Continue reading "Key Events in Modern History" »