Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

England in the Eighteenth Century

Two parables exist about the making and meanings of the British Empire. The first involves a man shipwrecked on a desert island. Despair gives way to resolution, Protestant faith, and ingenuity, allowing him to subdue his environment. He encounters a black man, names him, and makes him a servant. Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719) portrays empire-making as seizing land, planting it, and changing it, employing guns, technology, trade, and the Bible to impose rule and subordinate those of different skin pigmentation or religion.

Critique of Empire: Gulliver's Perspective

Gulliver observed that locals were deemed "harmless people" due to their perceived weakness. Consequently, their lands were seized and renamed.... Continue reading "England's Empire in the 18th Century: Expansion and Critique" »

Medieval Spanish Society: 8th-14th Centuries

Social Structure

Society was based on estates and had a pyramidal structure. At the top was the king.

• Privileged Estates
  • Nobility:
    • High nobles or ricoshombres (counts, marquises, and dukes) lived from their lands.
    • Low nobility, infanzones: in service of a member of the high nobility.
  • Clergy: Bishops, abbots, and grand masters of military orders.
• Non-privileged Estates
  • Peasants: The largest group. They were either owners or coloni of the land they farmed. Coloni were dependent on a feudal lord.
  • Bourgeoisie: Became more important as the cities grew bigger.

The Coexistence of Three Cultures

In the Christian kingdoms, Christians, Mudejars, and Jews all lived together. There was peaceful coexistence for a large part... Continue reading "Medieval Spanish Society, Culture, and Art: 8th-14th Centuries" »

UNIT 1: THE 18TH CENTURY. THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

1. Enlightenment:

• In what century and in what country did it begin?

During the 18th century, in France

• State three characteristics of the Enlightenment

Confidence in reason = believing that is the only way to understand the world and achieve progress and happiness

Faith in human progress = achieved through the advances made in science, which should lead all people to happiness

• Indicate one important philosopher and describe his thinking.

Voltaire: 'Let us read, and let’s us dance; these two amusements never do any harm to the world'

2. The American Revolution

• Indicate two causes why they wanted to be independent

1) Discontent of the colonies who lacked representation in British parliament

2) The da park

The Burgos Trials and Public Opinion

When, in December 1970, fourteen people supposedly implicated in the Manzanas assassination went to military trial in Burgos, the prosecution requested the death penalty for six of their number. However, a massive sway of public opinion against the state (domestically and internationally) and the bad publicity that the trial had generated for the Franco regime forced the authorities to back down. The death penalties were commuted to life sentences.

ETA's Transformation and Factionalism

After 1970, ETA received many new recruits, some of former EGI members and many working-class youths from the industrial towns of the Basque Country. As a result, ETA became much more of an urban guerrilla movement and during... Continue reading "The History and Evolution of ETA: From Its Origins to the Death of Franco" »

• Carriage - transporte: Transport
• Liability - responsabilidad: Responsibility
• Contract Rate - tasas de contrato: Low freight rate promised by a carrier for an extended period, in exchange for a large volume commitment from a customer.
• Commodity - mercancia: Article of trade or commerce.
• Merchandise - mercancia: Commercial goods; commodities.
• Shipment - envio: Act of sending something, usually a large quantity of objects to a place far away.
• Facility - instalaciones: A place, especially including buildings, where a particular activity happens.
• Freight/Cargo - carga: Goods carried by a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle.
• Inland - tierra adentro: In the interior of a country or region, away from a sea or border.
• In Bulk - a granel: In large quantities; unpackaged.

The Bolshevik Seizure of Power

Lenin and Trotsky, from the outset, aimed to consolidate power within the Bolshevik Party. This unprecedented structure placed true authority in the hands of a private entity, "the Party." Bolsheviks held key positions within the state apparatus, overseen by the Council of People's Commissars.

Despite pledging to convene and honor the Constituent Assembly, the Bolsheviks, aware of their minority standing, employed delaying tactics. The elections, however, proceeded, resulting in a Socialist Revolutionary majority. The dissolution of Russia's first democratically elected legislature marked the dawn of Bolshevik dictatorship. In March 1918, the Bolshevik Party rebranded as the Russian Communist Party, distinguishing... Continue reading "The Rise of the Bolsheviks and the Transformation of Russia" »

The American Revolution (1775-1783)

Origins of the War

The American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence, was fought between Great Britain and the thirteen American colonies, which ultimately founded the United States of America. The war stemmed from the resistance of many Americans to taxes imposed by the British Parliament, which they deemed illegal.

The Boston Tea Party

A pivotal event in the escalating tensions was the Boston Tea Party, a political protest that took place in Boston on December 16, 1773. Rebels disguised as American Indians boarded ships carrying tea and destroyed an entire shipment sent in defiance of the Tea Act of 1773. They threw the tea into Boston Harbor, ruining it. The British government... Continue reading "The American Revolution (1775-1783): A History" »

European Absolute Monarchy and Its Impact

In the 15th century, many European rulers increased their own power and weakened the nobles. In the early 17th century, Cardinal Richelieu felt nobles were still too powerful. Louis XIV invited nobles to live at his court at Versailles to exert more control over them.

Spain's Path to a Unified Nation

King Philip V abolished the special laws of the Crown of Aragon. He introduced Castilian law throughout Spain and made Madrid the capital. He also created intendentes, powerful civil servants.

Social Hierarchy in the Spanish Indies

The social structure in the Spanish Indies was a caste system based on your race and place of birth, with different rules for each group. As people of different races married and... Continue reading "European Monarchies, Colonial Systems & Enlightenment" »

Albert Einstein: A Brief Biography

Albert Einstein (German: [ˈalbɛɐ̯t ˈaɪnʃtaɪn]; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc² (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "services to theoretical physics", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory.

Groundbreaking Scientific Contributions

Near... Continue reading "Albert Einstein: Life, Theories, and Enduring Legacy" »