Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Regions and Peoples

Flanders

A Dutch-speaking area in the north of Belgium, and one of the three Belgian regions.

Brotherhood

The belief that people should act with warmth and equality toward one another, regardless of differences in nationality, creed, or ethnicity.

Moriscos

Former Mudéjars (Muslims under Christian rule) who converted to Christianity.

Historical Events and Treaties

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty between Charles V and the forces of Lutheran princes on September 22, 1555.

Revolt of the Comuneros

An uprising in Castile from 1520 to 1521, where comuneros (participants) rebelled against the rule of Charles V.

Political and Economic Systems

Council of the Indies

The name given to two separate bodies associated with British rule in India at different... Continue reading "Glossary of Historical Terms: Spain and the Americas" »

Leninism and the Bolshevik Revolution

Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks opposed the international war, believing in transforming it into a revolutionary war within their own country. By 1920, the economy and the support of the peasantry were in jeopardy, and millions of people had perished from disease and malnutrition.

Lenin's Interpretation of Marxism

Marxists typically viewed the urban working class as the driving force for socialist revolution and were somewhat indifferent to the peasantry. Lenin, however, recognized that a revolution in Russia could only succeed with the alliance of the peasantry, as they constituted the majority of the population. He also introduced his concept of a vanguard party, composed of revolutionaries waging a class... Continue reading "Leninism vs. Marxism: Bolshevik Revolution Impact" »

The Mayflower Compact: A Foundation for Self-Governance

The Mayflower Compact, drafted in 1620, stands as the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was created by the male passengers of the Mayflower, a group composed of religious Separatists seeking freedom from persecution and individuals seeking economic opportunity. Facing unforeseen circumstances that landed them outside their intended Virginia territory, the Pilgrims established this compact to ensure order and survival.

Key Features of the Mayflower Compact:

• Majoritarian Model: The compact established a system of self-governance based on majority rule, although it excluded women and children from voting.
• Social Contract: The settlers agreed to abide by the compact's rules and regulations

Causes of Colonialism

Demography

• Population growth (Emigration; America, Africa, Australia).
• Economy

Economic

• Search for new markets: to get raw materials/to sell manufactured products.
• Thanks to the transport revolution (steam ships).

Politics

• Developed countries looked for dominance (expansionist policies).

The Berlin Conference

Before 1885, one powerful country could occupy new territory and simply say "this belongs to us now!".

After 1884, countries had to agree to the principle of "effective occupation". This meant that they had to administer the country, not just possess it. Africa was divided up mainly between Great Britain and France. This was supposed to reduce the possibilities of conflict over colonial territories. Holding the conference in... Continue reading "Colonialism, WWI, and Their Consequences: A Global Perspective" »

Guilds

The guilds were associations of artisans with the same trade. At the top were teachers, then officers, and finally apprentices with rules about working conditions. Artisans belonging to a guild lived on the same street.

Migration

Peasants migrated to cities due to an increase in rural population, leading to city growth. Cities became important as many peasants emigrated, recovering commercial importance and increasing food supply.

Main Causes in the Crisis

Feudal Europe faced problems in the 14th century, with peasants rebelling against lords, urban poor against oligarchy, and massive revolts due to the Black Death.

Religious Crisis

Within Catholicism, the Western Schism occurred, leading to a period of rupture with two popes.

Political Crisis

The... Continue reading "Guilds, Migration, and Crisis in Medieval Europe" »

The Decline of the Spanish Dynasty (1898-1917)

Assumed control of Spain in 1902, it was a period of political and social unrest. There was a movement called Regenerationism, conservative reformists led by Antonio Maura promoted revolution from above. Liberal reformists, Maura resigned after what became known as the Tragic Week, when a revolt in Barcelona in 1909 was harshly repressed. Opposition parties gained power: Republicans, Catalanistas, Socialists, and Anarchists. The turbulent atmosphere in 1917 led to protest movements across Spain.

The Dynasty and Dictatorship (1917-1931)

Multi-party governments: politicians from different parties joined together to combat post-crisis instability. Social conflict: deterioration of working conditions... Continue reading "The Decline of the Spanish Dynasty and the Rise of Dictatorship" »

EUROPEAN EMPIRE: Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary

The Russian Revolution

Domestic Policy Under Nicholas II

Nicholas II, an absolute monarch, ruled Russia with the support of the nobility and the Orthodox Church. However, several clandestine parties opposed his regime, including:

• Constitutional Democratic Party: Advocated for transforming Russia into a constitutional monarchy.
• Socialist Revolutionary Party: Sought to collectivize land ownership.
• Mensheviks: Favored a gradual transition to socialism through liberal reforms.
• Bolsheviks: Aimed to establish a proletariat dictatorship led by the communist party.

Russia's economy was primarily agrarian, with 80% of the population being peasants. Although serfdom had been abolished, the relationship between nobility and peasants remained feudal. Industrialization... Continue reading "The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Communism" »

Exam B

1. The Constitution of 1812

This is a juridical text written at the time. This text contains the articles of the Constitution of 1812, which was the first in the history of Spain. It recognized individual agents as equals before the law and established national sovereignty. Absolutism was replaced by a liberal political system, including the separation of powers.

2. Key Events of the 19th Century

• Greece claiming independence from the Ottoman Empire (1829)
• Convention of Vergara (1839)
• First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
• Battle of Ayacucho (1824)
• Construction of the Madrid-Aranjuez railway (1851)

3. Political Groups and Disentailment

Afrancesados and Patriots

Afrancesados embraced the new morality and supported its reforms. This group of Spaniards... Continue reading "Spain's 19th Century: Constitution, Parties, and Disentailment" »

European Wars

The story of Europe is not about great achievements of which we can be proud. European nations have fought terrible wars against each other. In the 20th century, two wars that started on this continent spread and involved countries all over the world.

Founding of the European Union

If you want to prevent war, you have to work together. The first step is to control jointly the things needed for war: steel for weapons and energy for factories.

European Coal and Steel Community

That is why six European countries (Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands) agreed to unite their steel and coal industries.

European Economic Community

The six countries got on so well that they decided to go a step further and set up the E.E.C.... Continue reading "A History of European Integration and Spanish Autonomy" »