Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Steam Engine's Impact on the Industrial Revolution

The steam engine, initially invented by Thomas Newcomen and significantly improved by James Watt, was a pivotal innovation. Its development directly led to the creation of railways and steamships, revolutionizing transportation. This advancement made transport:

• Faster
• Cheaper
• Capable of carrying heavier cargoes

Spread of the Industrial Revolution Across Europe

Britain served as the primary model for industrialization, with other European nations soon following its example. Many countries adopted industrial practices and enhanced their transport systems. Nations like Belgium, France, Switzerland, and Germany developed their own industries at varying stages. Notably, Spain did not participate in... Continue reading "Key Historical Milestones: Industrial Revolution & Spanish History" »

William Henry Gates III

William Henry Gates III (born October 28, 1955) is an American business magnate, software developer, investor, and philanthropist. He is best known as the co-founder of Microsoft Corporation.^[2][3] During his career at Microsoft, Gates held the positions of chairman, chief executive officer (CEO), president, and chief software architect, while also being the largest individual shareholder until May 2014. He is one of the best-known entrepreneurs and pioneers of the microcomputer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s.

Born and raised in Seattle, Washington, Gates launched Microsoft with childhood friend Paul Allen in 1975 in Albuquerque, New Mexico; it went on to become the world's largest personal computer software company.... Continue reading "Bill Gates: Microsoft Co-Founder & Philanthropist" »

At the beginning of the Modern Age, sixteenth century, Spanish monarchs (Catholic Monarchs, Charles I, Philip II) wanted more and more territories, power, money ... For that, they did a series of things within the country (internal politics) and outside the country (foreign policy) to improve their wealth and gain more power. They began to conquer more and more territories. They succeeded and built the "Spanish Empire". However, by the seventeenth century, it would have gotten worse.

The foreign policy of the Catholic Monarchs (the alliances of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon) with the European Kingdom (Habsburg) for the movement policy with Portugal-England also, conquered the land in North Africa (Melilla, Algeria, and Libya).

Society in the Aftermath of WWI

During the war, men were conscripted or recruited into the armed forces. In European countries and their colonies, advertisements often encouraged patriotism and enlistment.

As soldiers went to war, women replaced them in many economic areas, such as offices and factories. Post-war, many women desired to continue working, but jobs were scarce. Additionally, working women were typically paid less than men. In some countries, the suffragette movement led to women gaining the right to vote soon after the war.

The Post-War World

After the armistice, representatives of the Allied Powers met at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) to determine conditions imposed on the defeated Central Powers.

At the conference, U.S.... Continue reading "World War I Aftermath: Societal Shifts, Treaties, and League of Nations" »

Sculpture

New forms and materials. Subject matters no longer needed to be noble. Materials were frequently taken from industrial waste, such as iron and steel. Ex. Alexander Calder designed mobile sculptures always in motion. In painting (innovative movements) Surrealism: Inspiration in the subconscious and in dreams. Use absurd and irrational elements as subject matter. Dadaism: Suggested destruction of art. Marcel Duchamp proposed ready-made art. He transformed everyday objects into art by displaying them in an art gallery. He believed art was in the attitude of the spectator as much as in the object itself. Abstract movement: Painters explored the possibility of creating works that had no reference to the outside world. Colour and shape were... Continue reading "Innovative Movements in Art and Politics" »

Henry VIII (1491-1547)

England's Second Tudor Monarch

Henry VIII ruled England from 1509 and is best known for his six marriages and his efforts to annul his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon. When the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, refused to allow the divorce, Henry challenged the Church's authority. He declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England through the Act of Supremacy (1534), solidifying his power and control over religious matters in England.

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

Henry VIII appointed Thomas Cromwell as his chief minister. Cromwell orchestrated the dissolution of Roman Catholic monasteries and convents between 1536 and 1540. During this period, Thomas More was beheaded for refusing to accept... Continue reading "A Brief History of England: From Henry VIII to the Virginia Company" »

Development of the First World War Conflict

Key Terms of WWI Phases

• War of Movements (1914): The initial phase of the First World War in 1914, characterized by both the Central Powers and the Allies attempting to achieve a decisive victory through rapid offensives, ultimately without success.
• Trench Warfare (1915-1916): The second phase of the First World War, from 1915 to 1916, where neither side achieved decisive victory. This period was defined by extensive lines of trenches dug into the ground, protected by machine guns and barbed wire, leading to a stalemate. During this phase, the conflict expanded globally with the entry of Bulgaria, Italy, Romania, Portugal, and Japan.

Main Phases of World War I

1. War of Movements (1914)

The war began on... Continue reading "World War I Conflict Development: Key Phases and Turning Points" »

Realism and the First World War

Realism, a prominent theory in international relations, posits that states primarily pursue their own interests in maximizing power and ensuring security within an anarchic international system. Realists believe states act as unitary actors, striving to amass the greatest possible power for their national interest.

Core Tenets of Realism in International Relations

Realism, whose four essential assumptions are rooted in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (Mingst & Arreguin-Toft, 2011), asserts that states are:

• Power-hungry: Willing to go to any limit to attain power.
• Security-focused: Interested in their own security, often achieved by building alliances with other states.
• Unitary actors: Once a decision