Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Modern Age: From the Middle Ages to the Contemporary Age

The Modern Age is the historical period from the end of the Middle Ages until the Contemporary Age; from the discovery of America and the fall of Constantinople until the French Revolution. Sub-periods include:

• 16th Century: The Renaissance
• 17th Century: The Baroque
• 18th Century: Absolutism

Main Changes

• End of the Byzantine Empire: Constantinople was invaded by the Turks.
• Geographical Discoveries: In Africa, America, and Asia.
• Rivalry for Power: Significant competition among European powers.

Crisis of the Feudal System

Feudal kingdoms were substituted by the modern state and authoritarian monarchies. The feudal economy, which had been focused on the possession of land, gave way to the rising influence... Continue reading "Modern Age: Renaissance, Reformation, and Discoveries" »

The National Convention (1792-1795)

This new parliament came into existence to address the ongoing war. Initially, the Girondins held sway within the parliament.

War and Royal Fate

The pressure from the coalition army was immense; they even invaded France. In September 1792, the decisive Battle of Valmy took place. Despite being a weaker army, France defeated the coalition forces.

In 1792, King Louis XVI attempted to escape but was captured near Paris, in Varennes, and subsequently taken back to Paris and imprisoned. The discovery of the King's correspondence with the enemy led to his trial and eventual execution in 1793.

Economic Hardship and the Reign of Terror

While the war was progressing favorably for France, prices increased significantly,... Continue reading "French Revolution's Aftermath: Convention, Directory, Consulate Eras" »

It was the President of the USA Woodrow Wilson the most powerful advocate of the League, since his 14 points intended to serve as the basis for world peace. Point 14 says: “A general association of nations should be formed …to create mutual guarantees of the political independence and territorial integrity of States, large and small equally.”

Organs:

The Assembly (representatives of all Members of the League), The Council, The Secretariat, The Permanent Court of I Justice (the first attempt to create a global forum of justice) and The International Labor Organization

The League tried to establish a New global order: based on Multilateralism and Cooperation, members agreed to work together to maintain peace, to control national armaments... Continue reading "The League of Nations and the Failure of Global Cooperation" »

Key Figures & Concepts in History

Catherine the Great: Russian Monarch

A great monarch of Russia, Catherine the Great exchanged letters with Voltaire and initially sought to reform Russian laws. However, after a serf uprising, she granted nobles absolute power over their serfs. Ultimately, many of her reform goals remained unaccomplished.

Thomas Jefferson: US President & Drafter

The 3rd President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson favored a limited central government. He was also the chief drafter of the Declaration of Independence.

Federalists: Supporters of the Constitution

The Federalists were a political faction and movement that supported the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.

Francis Bacon: Scientific Method Pioneer

Francis Bacon... Continue reading "Influential Historical Figures & Key Concepts" »

Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400)

Figure in the 14th century, 'father of English literature' because he went against the norm and wrote in the language of the people. Life experiences: wine merchant, royal household, spoke French, Latin, and Italian. Soldier and diplomat. Member of Parliament. Wrote the tales around 1385, wrote about all classes in the Canterbury Tales to show English society at the time. Went against tradition because he wrote in Middle English rather than French.

Hierarchy:

• Nobility (knight and squire)
• Clergy (monk, friar, parson, pardoner)
• Middle class (merchant, doctor, student, wife of bath)
• Peasants (miller, plowman, skipper)

Code of Chivalry:

A knight must be: true to his god, defender of the faith, loyal to his lord and king, true... Continue reading "Geoffrey Chaucer: Father of English Literature" »

The Rise of Asian Countries

China: The Birth of a Great Power

After Mao Zedong, the People's Republic of China was ruled by Deng Xiaoping (1978-1997). He promoted economic reforms known as "market socialism", which combined communism with some elements of capitalism. His reforms included:

1. Dismantling the communes.
2. Distributing land among the peasants.
3. Allowing peasants to sell their own products.
4. Encouraging the export of cheap products to foreign countries.
5. Opening China to foreign trade and investments.

Xiaoping's successors, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, have followed the same policy. The result has been the spectacular growth of the Chinese GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and its exports. Despite China being one of the greatest powers in the world, social... Continue reading "The Rise of Asia and the Modern Muslim World: Economic Growth, Political Conflicts, and Armed Conflicts" »

Melting Pot:

A place where a variety of races, cultures, or individuals assimilate into a cohesive whole. (Webster)

Salad Bowl:

A place where cultures are juxtaposed, like salad ingredients, but do not merge into a single homogeneous culture. Each culture keeps its own distinct qualities.

The American 'Melting Pot':

The phrase metaphorically describes the absorption of immigrants in America. It was originally the title of a play by London-born Jewish immigrant writer and political activist Israel Zangwill.

The Native-American Crack:

By the 15^th century A.D., it is estimated that 50 million people were already living in the Americas, 10 million of those in what became the United States. Between 1778, when the first treaty was made with the Delawares,... Continue reading "Models of American Multiculturalism: The 'Melting Pot' vs. 'Salad Bowl'" »

Sex and Gender in the Ancient World - Final Exam

Homer— patriarchal society: men hold positions of power and influence, the Iliad focuses on the actions of male warriors, leaders, gods, highlighting the dominance of men in both the mortal and divine realms. Glorifies the virtues associated with masculinity (bravery, physical strength, bravery in battle). The heroism of characters like Achilles and Hector is deeply tied to their adherence to a warrior code that values martial prowess and honor. Women were portrayed in domestic roles. Responsible for activities like weaving and managing the household. The women: Helen and Andromache, have limited agency in the public sphere and are largely defined by their relationships with men. Despite not... Continue reading "Ancient Gender Roles and Society: A Comprehensive Overview" »

The Great Depression and its Impact

The Great Depression significantly affected industrialized countries, particularly Great Britain, Austria, and Germany in Europe. Countries and colonies exporting raw materials also suffered as industrial nations, facing reduced purchasing power, drastically cut imports. Various solutions, generally based on economic nationalism and state intervention, were implemented.

The New Deal in the United States

In 1933, US President Roosevelt introduced the "New Deal," a plan to revive the economy through state intervention. This involved promoting public works, subsidizing firms, controlling banking, and expanding social welfare.

Great Britain's Response

In contrast, Great Britain limited its intervention to devaluing... Continue reading "The Great Depression and the Rise of Dictatorships" »