Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Roots of Revolution: Spain's Decline and Napoleonic Influence

Among the causes of the revolutionary crisis that matured from 1808 to 1810, the decline of Spain under the inept King Charles IV was certainly a major one. In Europe, Napoleon's expansion of French power significantly impacted Spain, leading to its effective satellite status. In 1807, French troops moved through Spain to invade Portugal.

By early 1810, French victory seemed inevitable. The juntas previously in charge of Spain dissolved and named the Cortes as their ruler. Confident that Napoleon's invincible armies would crush all opposition, some Creole leaders prepared to seize power. The imminent fall of Cadiz then ignited a conflict between patriots and royalists.

Simón Bolívar

Key Factors in the Discovery of New Lands

• The Conquest of Constantinople
• The end of the Reconquista
• Growing acceptance of the idea that the Earth was a sphere
• Technical inventions (compass, astrolabe, etc.)
• A new mentality (Humanism)

How Authoritarian Monarchies Reinforced Their Power

• Unifying and extending their territories through marriage and war
• Imposing regular taxes
• Appointing high public officials, summoning the Parliament, and limiting the autonomy of cities by sending corregidores
• Establishing the court in one city
• Maintaining a professional, permanent army
• Establishing a diplomatic system

Humanism in Italy

• Florence: Medici family (patrons who subsidized the arts). Machiavelli, political writer.
• Rome: Papal court. Nicolas de Cusa: humanistic writings.

Tension Factors

PATRIOTISM: People were deeply patriotic and wanted their country to be the best.

ARMS RACE: Germany, Russia, and Britain were building up lots of warships.

WAR PLANS: In 1914, the situation in Europe was tense. Secret alliances and the desire to grow empires had built up a dangerous climate of war.

KAISER: Germany had become very strong and its rivals were suspicious of their ruler, Wilhelm II.

COLONIAL EMPIRES: Some European countries, such as France and Britain, had created large worldwide empires and had become very rich.

ALLIANCES: In the years before the war, the nations of Europe were constantly making alliances. Germany with Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1881 to protect each other in the event they were attacked by France.... Continue reading "Causes of World War I and Phases of the War" »

Economic Growth and Industrial Expansion (1870-1914)

This period witnessed the most significant increase in economic growth ever recorded in such a short time. The standard of living improved considerably in industrialized countries.

Expansion of Industrialization (1870-1914)

• Russia and Spain: Their factories were concentrated in specific regions, and their economies were not fully industrialized.
• Germany: Became the world's leading manufacturer of chemical products.
• United States: Became the leading industrial power thanks to its economic dynamism and the presence of great inventors.
• Japan: In 1868, it began to modernize intensively with the advice of European and North American technicians.

The Rise of Corporations

A characteristic of this period... Continue reading "Industrialization and Social Change: 1870-1914" »

Chapter 7: Mother's Memory

Winston awoke from a dream about his mother. He realized he hadn't murdered her, despite believing he was indirectly responsible. He recalled a childhood of war, hunger, and his mother's quiet despair after his father vanished. Winston confessed to stealing food from his baby sister, leading to a deeper discussion.

Chapter 8: O'Brien's Invitation

Winston and Julia visited O'Brien, witnessing the Inner Party's luxuries. O'Brien revealed the Brotherhood's existence, including its servant member. He outlined the harsh requirements for membership, which Winston and Julia accepted, except for separation. O'Brien promised Winston a copy of Goldstein's book.

Chapter 9: Shifting Loyalties

During Hate Week, Winston received Goldstein'... Continue reading "Winston's Awakening: Rebellion in 1984" »

A New Nation

The Persian Manifesto: A Call to Restore Absolutism in 1814

We are looking at a letter written in 1814 by a group of absolutist deputies, who called themselves the Persians. It was addressed to King Ferdinand VII upon his return to Spain, with the aim of restoring absolutism.

The Political Climate in Spain

The confrontation between Charles IV and his son Ferdinand VII allowed Napoleon to summon both to Bayonne, where he convinced them to abdicate in his favor. He then bestowed the Spanish crown upon his brother, Joseph I, who was not accepted by the Spaniards. During his reign, Joseph I granted the citizens the Statute of Bayonne and implemented liberal measures, representing an advanced form of government. This sparked the War of Independence... Continue reading "The Persian Manifesto: A Call to Restore Absolutism in Spain" »

Napoleon's France (1799-1814)

Napoleon Bonaparte ruled France between 1799 and 1814.

Main ideas: unification of Europe, laws, and centralization.

Two Periods:

• The Consulate (1799-1804): Napoleon consolidated his power and implemented many revolutionary ideas, supported by the high bourgeoisie.
• The Empire (1804-1814): He declared himself Emperor of France, aiming to create a European Empire and spread revolutionary ideas across Europe.

Napoleon was defeated in 1814 by a coalition of countries.

After the Congress of Vienna, other European powers attempted to restore the absolutist system.

Napoleon's attempted comeback in 1815 ended in defeat.

The Liberal Ideas Spread by Napoleon

• Government: He sought national unification under a strong central government,

The Regency of María Cristina (1833-1840)

Isabella II became Queen at only three years old. Consequently, her mother, María Cristina, became regent. The first government was very conservative, but the Carlist Wars (1833-1840) forced the regent to embrace liberalism. Initially, Maria Cristina supported moderate liberals, who implemented minor reforms.

Maria Cristina appointed Juan Álvarez Mendizabal as president. He:

• Abolished the Ancient Regime
• Implemented fiscal reforms
• Dissolved manorialism
• Initiated a disentailment of property and confiscation of Church property
• Abolished the Mesta and guilds

These changes triggered military uprisings, popular revolts, and the mutiny of "La Granja" in 1836, along with uprisings by liberals and complaints from... Continue reading "María Cristina & Espartero: Regency in Spain (1833-1843)" »