Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Taxation System: The complex system of administration and taxation prevented the government from raising necessary funds and limited the influence of the Third Estate.
2. American War: France's involvement in the American War of Independence, while resulting in victory against Britain, led to a financial crisis due to the high cost of fighting overseas. This economic strain contributed to the French Revolution.
3. Price Increases: Crop failures and harsh winters resulted in food shortages and price increases, impacting peasants and the urban poor. The rising cost of living, coupled with a financial crisis, led to increased unemployment and social unrest.

The Beginning of the Revolution (1789)

The privileged classes resisted... Continue reading "The French Revolution: Causes, Phases, and Key Events" »

Rome was located in the center of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea (good for expansion) and protected by mountains in the north. It was founded by twin brothers: Romulus and Remus in 753 BCE. It was a fusion between Etruscan and native Roman elements. The Roman Republic was a system of government ruled by elected representatives. The Roman Empire conquered the Mediterranean, after fighting three wars: Punic Wars. The decline and fall of the Roman Empire took place between 133-31 BCE. During the Age of Augustus (31-14 BCE) there were provincial reforms, uniform imperial policy was established, and the frontiers were stabilized. There were five good emperors who followed the Pax Romana. The crisis in the third century was caused by military anarchy,... Continue reading "Ancient Rome and Greece: History, Culture, and Legacy" »

Yehoshua and the Gibeonites

All the kings in Israel, all of what Hashem did for Bnei Yisrael.

Seven Nations: Hitti, Emori, Canaani, Perizi, and Gergashi. The Gergashi moved to North Africa.

The nations had a choice. Yehoshua sent a letter stating that they could either leave, stay and fight, or make peace. The Gergashi left; everyone else fought.

All nations united to fight against Bnei Yisrael.

The Hivi (Gibeonites) heard all of what Yehoshua did to Yericho and Ai. They were scared.

Be'arma (with trickery), the Gibeonites dressed up as foreigners. Their shoes were torn and ripped, their bread was dry and moldy, and their clothing was patchy. Vayashu Gam Hema.

The Gibeonite people came to Yehoshua, dressed up, and Yehoshua asked them to make a treaty... Continue reading "Yehoshua and the Gibeonites: A Pact Forged" »

Six Notable Figures: A Glimpse into Their Lives

This document highlights the lives and achievements of six renowned individuals.

Michelle Pfeiffer: Acclaimed Actress and Singer

Michelle Pfeiffer is an American actress and singer. She made her film debut in 1980 in The Hollywood Knights. She has been nominated three times for an Academy Award for her performances. During her career, Pfeiffer has won numerous awards, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress.

Nelson Mandela: Anti-Apartheid Leader and President

Nelson Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He died at the age of 95 on 5 December 2013. He was imprisoned for being against... Continue reading "Profiles of Six Influential Global Figures" »

The Restoration of Absolutism: The countries that defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna.

Ideas: Restoring absolutism with legitimism in France and Spain to stop liberalism and nationalism. Balance of powers between European countries. The Holy Alliance Treaty with Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and the Quadruple Alliance with the previous countries plus Britain.

Revolutions in 1830: Nationalism and liberalism became popular. The revolution started in France where Charles, an absolute monarch, was replaced by Louis Philippe of Orleans as a constitutional monarch.

The Spring of Nations: The unification of Italy and Germany, and the independence of the Russian, Ottoman, and Austrian empires. There were revolts, the most important ones in... Continue reading "The Restoration of Absolutism and the Rise of Nationalism: Congress of Vienna and Revolutions in Europe" »

The Genesis of Basque Nationalism: Sabino Arana's Vision

The foundational text of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was penned by Sabino Arana, articulating his distinct political ideology. His core tenets included:

• Bizkaia's Catholic Identity: A vision for Bizkaia as a Catholic, Roman Apostolic state.
• Bizkaia's Independence: Advocacy for Bizkaia as an independent state.
• Church-State Relationship: While acknowledging the state's belonging to the church, Arana proposed a separation between state and church, yet believed laws should align with Catholic doctrine.
• Federal Basque State: A unified, independent federal state comprising three Basque provinces, bound by shared race, faith, personality, and customs.

Historical Context: Post-Carlist War Bizkaia

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

One of these liberal coups, headed by Colonel Riego, succeeded in taking power. Ferdinand VII was forced to reinstate the Constitution of 1812 and the liberal legislation.

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Ferdinand asked for help from the Holy Alliance, which sent an army, the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, to restore the absolute monarchy in Spain. The King faced many problems in this period:

• Independence of the Spanish American colonies
• State bankruptcy, due to the high level of debt during the War of Independence and the lack of income.
• The succession problem owing to a lack of a male descendant. Ferdinand issued the Pragmatic Sanction that repealed the Salic Law, by which women were not allowed to reign.

The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire

Early Encounters and Exploration

In 1518, a disturbing report reached the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán: white-faced men were approaching from the sea. King Moctezuma, filled with dismay, wondered if these strangers could be the returning god Quetzalcóatl.

These men were part of an expedition led by Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velásquez, the governor of Cuba, to explore the coasts discovered by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Grijalva's expedition traded gold with the Aztecs, confirming the existence of a wealthy kingdom.

Hernán Cortés and the March to Tenochtitlán

Velásquez, eager to conquer this new land, chose Hernán Cortés to lead a third expedition. Cortés, a skilled soldier and strategist,... Continue reading "The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire: A Pivotal Moment in History" »

The Russian Hero

It was a winter day. A young man named Ralph Muller, 15 years old, who lived in Russia, had been enlisted to join the army, but he did not pass the tests and could not enlist.

From that day, Ralph did not stop training. He spent three years preparing and returned to try to enlist. This time he got in. Ralph was the best and began to fight in minor wars until they sent him to fight against Hitler's Germany.

Ralph and a gigantic army of Russians went to Germany. It was night, and the next day they planned to attack the German troops. When day arrived, the Russians woke up. They knew where the German ranks were and they wanted to surround them. To do that, they had to go through the mountains until one of the Russian military officers... Continue reading "Ralph Muller: A Russian Soldier's Bravery Against Hitler" »

Colonial Nigeria: British Administration and Independence

The largest of British colonies in West Africa was Nigeria. The establishment of Nigeria as a British colony was mainly due to the efforts of Sir George Goldie.

After gaining control of all the British firms trading on the Niger River, he also took over two French companies and signed treaties with numerous African leaders. By 1886, his firm controlled business activities in the area and was granted a British royal charter, establishing the Royal Niger Company.

In 1900, the charter was revoked, and the company's territory came under the direct control of the British government. A year later, Nigeria became a British protectorate.

The administration of Nigeria was based on a system called... Continue reading "Colonial History of Nigeria and Kenya: British Rule and Independence" »