Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Social and Cultural Roots of the Mafia

The rise of the Mafia in Italy can be attributed to a complex interplay of social and cultural factors, particularly in the southern regions. Historical conditions, such as agrarian conflicts and feudal systems, created a fertile ground for the emergence of organized crime. The Mafia's emphasis on honor, loyalty, and family values shaped its internal dynamics and interactions with society.

Values and Underdevelopment in Southern Italy

The Mafia's values, while seemingly positive, often hindered modernization efforts and contributed to the economic lag in southern Italy. Loyalty to family often superseded loyalty to societal institutions, leading to a distrust of the state and a reluctance to cooperate with... Continue reading "The Mafia in Italy: A Historical and Cultural Analysis" »

The Second World War was a devastating military conflict that spanned from 1939 until 1945. It involved nearly all European countries, Japan, the United States, China, and European colonies across North Africa, Asia, and Oceania, making it a truly global event.

Origins of World War II

The primary causes of this monumental war included:

• Nationalist Discontent: Germany harbored resentment over the loss of significant territories due to the Treaty of Versailles. Italy, similarly, felt aggrieved, believing it had not received the territories it deserved after World War I.
• Economic Protectionism: The adoption of protectionist economic policies, aimed at reducing imports, led to an increase in tensions and trade disputes between nations.
• Expansionist

Blitzkrieg and Hitler's Motives

What is the Blitzkrieg? Why did Hitler use the Blitzkrieg? Blitzkrieg were shock tactics. Its aim was to paralyse the enemy by a devastating use of the most up-to-date technology. Hitler used Blitzkrieg tactics for two reasons:

• Many people in Germany didn't share Hitler's enthusiasm for the war. Blitzkrieg would deliver quick victories that would get people to support it.
• Germany's economy couldn't support long-drawn-out campaigns. Blitzkrieg allowed the army to seize territory quickly and plunder the resources Germany needed.

Can you explain the turning point of the Second World War and why did it happen? If the war was going to last for long, Hitler thought that Germany would need oil. Then, he turned his eyes... Continue reading "Blitzkrieg and War Crimes in World War II" »

Key Terms and Concepts of Russian History

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended World War I for Russia. Russia was treated very harshly, being forced to give up significant western lands, including 26% of its railways and population, and 74% of its iron and coal resources.

Fundamental Laws of 1906

Introduced by the Tsar in 1906, these laws backtracked on promises made in the October Manifesto, significantly limiting the powers of the Duma.

Kadets (Constitutional Democrats)

The Constitutional Democrats, founded at the beginning of the 20th century, advocated for a limited form of representative democracy in Russia.

Alexander Kerensky

A prominent member of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) and the Provisional Government, Alexander... Continue reading "Russian History Glossary: Revolution and Imperial Era" »

World War II: Development of the Global Conflict (1939-1945)

Characteristics of the War

The war had an enormous reach, with operations spanning the Pacific, Europe, and Africa. It involved sixty countries, affecting up to 90% of the human population. Lasting six years—two more than the previous war—its duration was primarily due to the numerous German victories at the start, which necessitated a long and extensive recovery of lost territory.

It was also noteworthy for being the quintessential total war, forcing the economies of warring countries to be organized entirely around the conflict. Over 100 million soldiers were mobilized, and powerful weapons (tanks, bombs, aviation, etc.) were extensively used. Furthermore, it was an extremely merciless... Continue reading "World War II: Global Conflict, Key Stages, and Impact (1939-1945)" »

Eusko Ikaskuntza's Project

Elaborated before the redaction of the constitution, it was unconstitutional.

·Alava, Navarre, Biscay and Guipuzcoa formed a state inside Spain

·Autonomous competences wide

·Internal structure was co-federal: autonomy of each territory wide and each territory had the same number of representatives in parliaments and government.

·Bilingualism in education and administration

·Economic concerts as financier system

·Sons/daughters of Basques needed 1 year of residence to have political rights (Spaniards 2)

·Assembly with representative of Spain and BC to decide if there was a dispute

Other projects:

·Carlists + PNV: re-modelled the project for interest of church

·Socialists: number of votes proportional to the inhabitants... Continue reading "Basque Autonomy Projects in Spain" »

Brest-Litovsk Peace

Germans were advancing in Russia and they signed the Brest Litovsk Treaty, so Russia left WW1, having accepted German conditions. A civil war started in Russia because people saw communists as danger.

Civil War

• Whites were anti-communists.

• Reds were communists.

Great Britain, France and US helped the Whites to stop communism. Red forces were united while White forces were not. That made difficult the coordination of their attacks. When the red Army defeated their enemies in Russia, they went to Poland to spread communism, but Poland defeated them. Tsar and his family were executed

War communism and mutiny

• War communism was a system established by the Reds to win the War. They had power over the people and they use violence in case

Background

Prior to the end of World War II in 1945, the Allied powers held a series of conferences to address the post-war situation of Germany and Eastern Europe.

Tehran Conference (November 1943)

The Tehran Conference agreed that the USSR would annex the Baltic States and eastern Poland.

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

The Yalta Conference, attended by Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, agreed to rebuild Europe with democratic governments. They also redrew the boundaries of Poland, Germany, and Berlin, dividing the city into four military zones.

Potsdam Conference (July-August 1945)

The Potsdam Conference agreed to revert all German annexations in Europe, demilitarize and divide Germany, pay war reparations, and punish Nazi war criminals.

Peace

The New Man: Humanist Vision

The new man: humanists proposed a new vision of man as the most perfect of God's creations. They considered him the center of universal interest. Freedom and reason: they believed that God had created man as a free being responsible for his actions and capable of rational thought. Scientific interest: in order to expand their knowledge, they used observation and experimentation. Human progress: humanist thought was optimistic. Intellectuals believed in God and the Christian faith. Rediscovery of antiquity: the teachings of classical authors such as Plato and Aristotle were a model for intellectual, social, and political behavior and education.

Demographic and Economic Recovery

In the second half of the 15th century,... Continue reading "The Renaissance: A New Vision of Man and Society" »

Ferdinand VII: The Restoration of Absolutism (1813-1833)

Ferdinand returned to Spain in 1814. His reign is divided into three phases:

1. Six Years of Absolutism (1814-1820):

   Upon his return, Ferdinand sought to establish an absolute monarchy, reverting to the Ancien Régime. He annulled the constitution and reversed the Cortes' reforms.

2. Liberal Triennium (1820-1823):

   A successful pronunciamiento forced Ferdinand to reinstate the constitution. Liberals formed the national militia, composed of liberal volunteers, to defend it. Ferdinand appealed to the Holy Alliance for help in restoring absolutism.

3. Ominous Decades (1823-1833):

   The first crisis emerged in 1823 when the king rejected financial reforms, fearing the loss of support from those who would have