Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Regency of María Cristina (1833-1840)

Isabella II became Queen at only three years old. Consequently, her mother, María Cristina, became regent. The first government was very conservative, but the Carlist Wars (1833-1840) forced the regent to embrace liberalism. Initially, Maria Cristina supported moderate liberals, who implemented minor reforms.

Maria Cristina appointed Juan Álvarez Mendizabal as president. He:

• Abolished the Ancient Regime
• Implemented fiscal reforms
• Dissolved manorialism
• Initiated a disentailment of property and confiscation of Church property
• Abolished the Mesta and guilds

These changes triggered military uprisings, popular revolts, and the mutiny of "La Granja" in 1836, along with uprisings by liberals and complaints from... Continue reading "María Cristina & Espartero: Regency in Spain (1833-1843)" »

The Perestroica and the Glasnost

Mijaíl Gorbachov, new leader of the USSR announced a new program, based on: Perestroika and Glasnost.

The perestroika wanted to gave more socialism and democracy to the system, but taking into consideration communism, and with reforms:

• In politics it meant that some groups from the opposition were able to take place in the democratic elections.
• In economy, it meant that little by little they were being made part of the capitalist system.

Glasnost tried to moderate the censorship.

International relationships

International relationship softened although they weren’t always good.

With the Treaty of Washington both countries decided to reduce their arsenals.

The fall of communism in Europe

In 1986, there was a terrible... Continue reading "Gorbachev novomyshlenie" »

Q.1 American Revolution & Locke's Influence

• John Locke Two Treatises of Government

According to John Locke, the British King did not have the divine right of kings to rule; rather, the ruled were to receive "Life, liberty, and property" in a social contract between the subjects and the King.

If he broke the contract, the ruled had the right to revolt.

• Founding Fathers of American Revolution borrowed from Locke "Life, liberty and pursuit of happiness" and the right to revolt from the British King

Q.2 The Politics of Signing of the US Constitution

• Philadelphia Convention

The formal signing of the Constitution took place on September 17, 1787, almost 109 days after the Philadelphia Convention first met.

Meeting on September 13, 1788, the Articles... Continue reading "The American Revolution, Locke's Influence, and the Politics of the US Constitution" »

The Commonwealth Realm

The Commonwealth Realm is a group of 15 sovereign states that are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. These states have Queen Elizabeth II as their reigning constitutional monarch and share the same royal line of succession. They are part of the Commonwealth and were formerly part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth of Nations itself is an intergovernmental organization of 53 member states, most of which were territories of the former British Empire.

The British Empire

The British Empire comprised dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom.

Were All Countries in the Commonwealth Former British Colonies?

Commonwealth members are a diverse group. The... Continue reading "The Commonwealth Realm: History, Members, and Origins" »

Argentina

Economic Growth (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)

Argentina's economic growth during this period hinged on three factors:

• A booming European market for Argentine products
• An influx of immigrants providing cheap labor
• Significant foreign investment capital

Both rich and poor relied on the export economy, though its benefits were unevenly distributed. Notably, male employers favored women workers, perceiving them as cheaper, more reliable, efficient, and docile than their male counterparts. Despite Argentina's vast land being its greatest asset, ownership was concentrated in the hands of a few.

Society

Argentine society was stratified into three classes:

• Upper Class: Held a monopoly on land ownership and political control.
• Middle Class: Dominated

The Great Depression

Politics in United States

The Russian Revolution of 1917

Causes of the Revolution

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia's empire extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from Poland to the Pacific Ocean. It was ruled by the Tsars of the Romanov dynasty and was in a state of turmoil. Dissatisfaction at the political level was due to the autocratic government of the tsars and led to political opposition made up of liberal bourgeois parties and Marxist revolutionary parties, such as the Bolsheviks.

Economic and Social Discontent

Dissatisfaction at the economic and social levels was due to the contrast between the rich minority, who owned land and factories, and the extremely poor peasants and industrial proletariat.

The Revolutions of 1905 and 1917

• In 1905, general

Between 1870 and 1914, Europe experienced a period known as the "Armed Peace." Despite the absence of major wars, tensions simmered among European nations, leading to a significant arms race. Countries dedicated a substantial portion of their resources to military production, creating an atmosphere of unease and anticipation.

The Importance of the German Empire

Following its unification in 1871, Germany emerged as the dominant power in Europe, driven by its robust economic and military development. German foreign policy during this period can be divided into two distinct phases:

The Bismarckian System (1871-1890)

Under Emperor Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Germany pursued a diplomatic strategy aimed at maintaining the balance of power... Continue reading "The Armed Peace in Europe (1870-1914)" »

Napoleonic Rule in France

The Consulate (1799-1804)

A new regime, the Consulate, was established following the coup d'état of 1799. Under its constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, held dictatorial power. This constitution was later revised:

• In 1802, Napoleon was made Consul for life.
• In 1804, he became Emperor, with the assent of the electorate.

Key Napoleonic Reforms

Several important reforms were implemented during Napoleon's rule:

• The central administration was reorganized for efficiency.
• The court system was simplified.
• Control over the school system was centralized under the state.
• French laws were standardized in the influential Napoleonic Code (Civil Code) and six other codes. These guaranteed rights and liberties won during the

DEMOCRACY:

A political system in which people choose their leaders by voting for them.

• Freedom: Is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants. (Es el poder o el derecho de actuar, hablar o pensar como uno quiera.)
• Power of division: The political power is divided to avoid having a single group that governs: Legislative, executive, judicial. (El poder político se divide para evitar tener un solo grupo que gobierne: Legislativo, Ejecutivo, Judicial.)
• Equality: We are all equal under the law. The state of being equal, especially in status, rights, or opportunities. (Todos somos iguales ante la ley. El estado de ser igual, especialmente en estatus, derechos u oportunidades.)
• Representative:  People take part in politics by voting for