Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

What was the social structure of cities? As during all the Middle Ages, there were big differences among the population.

The Upper Classes

The upper classes were formed by two groups.

• The upper nobility continued having their privileges, and some moved to the cities and lived in palaces.
• A new social class emerged: the wealthy bourgeoisie. These were the rich merchants, bankers and leaders of the important guilds. This group normally formed the city government.

The Lower Classes

The lower classes were formed by the rest of the population.

• The commoners formed the majority. There were small craftsmen, merchants and servants. They lived modestly.
• The lower nobility also belonged to this group. As they didn't work and didn't possess any land, they were

New Global Geopolitics: The World Divided into Blocs

The Formation of the Blocs

As of 1947, the United States and the USSR became adversaries because they adopted radically different political and economic systems. They formed two blocs of countries.

Capitalist Bloc (USA)

Included the countries of Western Europe and Japan, with common features like parliamentary democracy and a capitalist economy. This bloc was strengthened by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

Communist Bloc (USSR)

Included the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (occupied after World War I). These countries subordinated freedoms and individual rights to the state's interests and a planned economy. The bloc was reinforced by a military alliance (the Warsaw Pact).... Continue reading "The Cold War: A Geopolitical Division of the World" »

UNIT 8: THE COLD WAR AND THE PROCESS OF DECOLONISATION

1.1. THE WORLD AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

After World War II, two victorious world powers emerged: the USA and the USSR. They became adversaries because they had different political, economic, and social systems. Each power looked for allies in the rest of the world and attempted to influence foreign governments. Two opposed blocs emerged: USA insisted on the expulsion of the communists from Western Europe, while USSR looked to establish communist governments in Eastern and Central Europe.

1.2. THE CONTROL OF THE BLOCS

In 1947, the American president, Harry S. Truman denounced the imposition of communist regimes in Eastern and Central Europe, offered economic and military aid to the countries... Continue reading "The Cold War and Decolonization: USA, USSR, and Capitalism" »

Text 9 Librecambism and protectionism

This text Is a transcription of a speech given by the speaker Federico Etxebarria, a Basque (). Its aim is to complain about a possible trade treaty between Spain And Germany, which will allowed German iron to be sold in the country. It is a First level text dated on the late 19^th century, in 1893.

This Speech was given during the period of Restoration System, implied after the Intention, in 1874, of creating a republic in the country. The country was at This period run by the 1876 Constitution and where the two dynastic parties, The conservatives of Cánovas and the liberals of Sagasta took it in terms to Govern. Rigging elections enable this situation. Economicwise, Spain was not Very developed. Agriculture... Continue reading "The Impact of Protectionism on 19th Century Spain: A Basque Perspective" »

Causes of Imperialism

Economic Rivalry

Competition between countries for lands increased military expenditure.

Political Rivalry

New powers (USA and France), alliances, Balkans conflict.

Colonialism

• Industrial development = demographic growth - life improves
• Strategic moves
• Developed countries compete for dominance = suspicion between powers

Congress of Berlin

USA, Germany, Japan VS England

Portugal, Belgium, Italy: interested in African colonies (raw materials)

German Otto von Bismarck distributed Africa.

Consequences of Colonialism

For the Colonies

• No industrialization
• Land exploitation
• Imposition of conquering power
• Destruction of ethnic structures
• Artificial borders

For the Empires

• Development of industrialization
• Strategic moves
• Arms race
• Suspicion between powers
• Prestige
• Introduced

The Hegemony of the USA

The USA had two main political parties: The Republican (centre-right) and The Democratic (centre-left).

Harry S. Truman and Dwight Eisenhower (1945-1960) established a severe anti-communist foreign policy by:

• Creating a “blacklist” of communist sympathizers in the trade unions, among Hollywood actors, screenwriters, and directors.

John F. Kennedy became president (1961) and tensions eased. The civil rights movement emerged, advocating for equality of rights for the Black population. Its main leader was Martin Luther King.

The American economy grew significantly after the war. Transport and tourism, agriculture and industry, commerce and finance all contributed to the rise of powerful multinational companies that spread... Continue reading "The Post-War World: US Hegemony, Japanese Miracle, and the Rise of the European Union" »

The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration

The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon's defeat in 1815, marked a return to the Ancien Régime. European powers—Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain—sought to restore the pre-revolutionary political order.

Two key alliances emerged during this period:

• The Holy Alliance: Comprising Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
• The Quadruple Alliance: Including Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain.

Revolutions and Ideologies

The 19th century witnessed numerous revolutions across Europe, fueled by discontent with the restored order. These uprisings were driven by powerful ideologies:

Liberalism

Liberalism championed individual liberties and resonated with the burgeoning bourgeoisie. Its core principles... Continue reading "19th Century European Revolutions: From Restoration to Reform" »

Assembly line:

System of production using a moving belt, in which each worker repetitively completes one part of the production process.

Alliances:

Formal agreement between two or more countries to cooperate.

Abdicate:

Give up the title of monarch or emperor.

Armistice:

Agreement to stop fighting.

Bolshevik:

Russian word meaning “majority”.

Consumer society:

Society in which the buying and selling of goods and services is the most important activity.

Colonize:

Take direct control of a region or country.

Consumerism:

Desire to acquire more and more goods; it is also beneficial to the economy.

Communist:

Based on the ideas of Karl Marx; describes a person or political party which advocates the dictatorship of the proletariat, the elimination of private... Continue reading "Key Terms of World History: Definitions and Explanations" »

The Foundational Treaties

The idea was to encourage progressive economic integration that would eventually lead to a political union. The first treaties, known as the foundational treaties, were:

The Treaty of Paris (1951)

• Established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
• Originally formed by: France, Luxembourg, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands.

The Treaty of Rome

• Signed by the same six countries as the Treaty of Paris.
• Established the EEC (European Economic Community).
• Formed a common market of goods, labor, services, and capital, and a common agricultural policy.

The Treaty of Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community)

• Established a common market for nuclear energy.

The ECSC, EEC, and Euratom created their own institutions... Continue reading "The Rise and Fall of Communism: From Post-War Recovery to Economic Stagnation" »

in the Early modern age the spanish monarchs wanted to become more powerful.For this Reason they did many things inside the country (domestic policy) and outside ( Foreign policy).After the reign of the cactholic cmonarchs and the higher Habsburgs the spell of good luck became to the end with the lesser habsburgs And Felipe V

The reign Of Cacholic Monarchs lasted from 1469 to 1516.With the marriage of Isabel of Castile and Fernando of Aragon this two crowns joined.With the Catholic Monarchs began the modern state and there was a common policy in the Iberian Peninsula but independent kingdoms. About the foreign policy during this reign They made alliances with other European kingdoms(From Habsburg to holy roman empire) by matrimonial policy with... Continue reading "The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire: From Habsburgs to Bourbons" »