Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Bourgeois Revolutions

These revolutions enabled the bourgeoisie to gain political and social status previously only available to the nobility under the Ancient Régime. These revolutions took place in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Key Revolutions

• The American Revolution: The independence of the US was the bourgeoisie's first triumph.
• The French Revolution: Ended absolute monarchy and the estate system of the Ancien Régime, ushering in the Modern Age.

The American Revolution

In the American War of Independence, Great Britain fought against its 13 colonies located on the Atlantic coast of North America.

Causes

• Ideological Factors: Colonists, familiar with Enlightenment thinking about liberty and equality, used these ideals as the basis for the independence

The Conquest of Peru: Pizarro and Atahualpa

The Quest for the South Sea and the Capture of Atahualpa

After the conquest of Mexico, other Spaniards were challenged to match Hernán Cortés’s achievements. The challenge was taken up by Francisco Pizarro. He embarked on the quest to the South Sea that Balboa started, sailing with two partners: Diego de Almagro and Hernando de Luque.

Pizarro made two preliminary trips in 1524 and 1526, and then requested royal permission for the enterprise in Peru. He returned to Peru in 1531 to discover that the Inca Empire was undergoing a civil war. Atahualpa and his half-brother Huáscar were fighting for the Inca throne. Atahualpa won and soon received news of the white strangers landing on his shores.

They... Continue reading "The Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire: Pizarro and Atahualpa" »

World War I: Causes and Outbreak

World War I began in 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. The conflict pitted the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire) against the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan, and the United States).

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered a series of diplomatic crises that led to the outbreak of war. Austria-Hungary, convinced that Serbia was behind the assassination, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized its army in response, prompting Germany to declare war on Russia and France.

Within a week, World War I had begun, with Russia, Belgium, France,... Continue reading "World War I: Causes, Consequences, and Impact" »

Causes of the Crisis of 1917

As Spain benefited from exporting to other countries while workers continued to receive the same wages, a crisis formed that affected several areas:

• Social Crisis: The socialist unions (UGT) and anarchist unions (CNT) called a general strike with the aim of overthrowing the political system of the Restoration.
• Military Crisis: Soldiers joined organizations called Juntas de Defensa Militar and demanded higher salaries. They also called for political changes and the continuation of the war in Morocco.
• Political Crisis: Catalans, Republicans, and Socialists met in an Assembly of Parliamentarians and tried to impose political reform. However, the assembly was dissolved by the government.

Consequences of the Crisis of 1917

The... Continue reading "Spain's 1917 Crisis & 1931 Constitution Reforms" »

Key Terms and Concepts

• Tanks: War machines
• Enlist: Sign-up to war
• Counter-attack: To fight back
• Stalemate: Situation where no one can win
• Revolution: The people don't want a king
• Armistice: Agreement to stop war
• Reserves: Spare stocks, material, and army of the war
• Offensive: An aggressive movement or attack

Key Leaders

• Germany: Kaiser Wilhelm II
• Austria-Hungary: Emperor Franz Josef
• Russia: Tsar Nicholas II
• Britain: Prime Minister George V
• Italy: Prime Minister Antonio Salandra (until two years into the war, then Giovanni Giolitti)
• France: Prime Minister George Clemenceau

Alliances

• Triple Entente: Russia, France, Britain
• Triple Alliance: Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary
• Russia-France Alliance

Key Events of 1914

• June 28: Franz Ferdinand assassinated
• July 23: Austria

Causes of European Expansion in the Age of Discovery

Political and Economic Causes

Political causes

Following the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the Christian kingdoms continued their expansion by taking control of new territories. For the monarchs who were establishing their authority, the conquest of territories was an opportunity to acquire gold and silver to finance their rule as well as gain personal glory. It was a way to demonstrate their power over the medieval institutions.

Economic consequences

The fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453) had closed the traditional European trade route that brought supplies of spices from Asia. Therefore, to bring them to Europe it was necessary to use a new route to India and China, in order to... Continue reading "Causes of European Expansion in the Age of Discovery" »

The Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present-day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent. There were multiple motivations including the quest for national prestige, tensions between pairs of European powers, religious missionary zeal and internal African native politics.

The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference... Continue reading "The Scramble for Africa: European Colonization and the Berlin Conference" »