Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Key Political Terms

Ballot The act of holding a secret vote. As a verb, holding a secret vote. No one knows who you voted for.

Bill A proposed change in the law. When it is still in the planning stage and before it becomes legal, a law is called a bill.

Coalition The time when different political parties agree on something for a reason.

Democracy A system where power is held by the people through elections. One person = one vote.

'The alternatives to Democracy, Communism for example, have largely been failures.'

To Elect (Verb) To choose by voting. 'In November Americans will vote for a new President.'

Election The process of choosing a new government or leader. 'In Britain elections are held every 4 or 5 years.'

Election Campaign The organised effort... Continue reading "Understanding Politics: Key Terms and Concepts" »

The Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century. It was an era in intellectual, scientific, and cultural life where reason was regarded as the primary source of legitimacy and authority.

Philosophers of the Enlightenment

Key figures of the Enlightenment included:

• Voltaire
• Rousseau
• Montesquieu
• Diderot
• D'Alembert

These thinkers built upon the ideas of Descartes, Hobbes, and Locke.

Social Contract, National Sovereignty, and Separation of Powers

Rousseau argued that the social contract is an agreement individuals willingly enter to limit their own freedom for the benefit of society.

Montesquieu, inspired by the English parliamentary system, believed... Continue reading "The Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution" »

Mesopotamia, also known as the Cradle of Civilization, was ruled by 16 different nations.

The Republic of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932. King Faisal ruled until 1979, when Saddam Hussein took power after five different coups.

The Iraq War in 2003, also known as Operation Iraqi Freedom, resulted in the capture of Saddam Hussein, who was found hiding in a hole after Operation Red Dawn.

Saddam Hussein was responsible for the deaths of 148 Shia and 180,000 Kurds in the Anfal Campaign, including the infamous Halabja Attack that killed 15,000 people with chemical weapons.

After his death in 2006, it was revealed that Saddam Hussein had killed 205,000 Kurds, leading to the implementation of no-fly zones over Iraq.

The history of Iraq is... Continue reading "History of Iraq: Wars, Conflicts, and International Relations" »

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship

In 1923, General Primo de Rivera led a military coup against the Spanish government, claiming that only a dictatorship could resolve the problems of Alfonso XIII's reign. With the king's approval, Primo de Rivera became head of government.

Initially, many sectors of society, including the army, church, and business owners, supported the dictatorship, hoping it would restore order. The Patriotic Union became the sole official party.

To maintain order, the government suppressed protests, regionalist movements, and anarchist organizations. More troops were deployed to Morocco, and in 1926, Spain declared victory in the Rif War.

From 1928 onward, opposition grew, with parties demanding the restoration of the Cortes... Continue reading "Spain's Political Upheavals: From Dictatorship to Civil War" »

Decolonisation: The Process and Its Consequences

Decolonisation of Asia and the Middle East

In Asia, the independence of the Philippines was a peaceful process because the United States voluntarily granted this status to the country in 1946. The process was mixed on the Hindustan peninsula, where the British Indian Empire was partitioned in 1947 to form the Indian Union and Pakistan, from which Bangladesh separated in 1971. Independence was achieved through war in the Dutch colony of Indonesia and in French Indo-China, from which Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia emerged.

In the Middle East, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and various countries of the Arabian Peninsula became independent. The UN decided to divide Palestine in 1947 in order to create the... Continue reading "Decolonisation: Process, Consequences, and Impact" »

1870 Systems starts second revolution

1871-1890 Bismarckian aliens

1875 German Social Democratic Party

1885 Berlin conference

1889 Second International

1891 Peace through strength

1891 Triple Alliance, Triple Entente

1813 Forward assembly lines

1914 Panama Canal

1914-1918 World War One

1914 Assassination of Francisco Fernando, Austro-Hungary

Ultimatum to Syria, War is Declared

Serbia, Russia supports Serbia, Germany versus Russia, Your Money versus France, Germany invades Belgium

Japan, Triple Entente, Ottoman, Triple Alliance

1914-1915 War Movement

1915 Italy, Triple Entente, Bulgaria, Triple Alliance

1916 Battle of Verdun in Germany, Battle of Somme

1917-1918 End of the War

1917 US entered the war

1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

1919 Treaty of Versailles

A More Perfect Union, 2008

Classification

• Political speech, delivered in Philadelphia during the contest for the Democratic party presidential nomination.
• An attempt to address tensions between ideals of equal citizenship and freedom expressed in the Constitution, and America's history of slavery and segregation.

Authorship

• Barack Hussein Obama (1961)
• The first African American to become President of the United States of America.
• Son of a Kenyan man and a woman from Kansas, raised by his grandparents.
• From 1997 to 2004, he was a Democratic Senator for Illinois.
• In 2009, he won the Nobel Peace Prize.

Context

• 2008 Primaries for the Democratic Candidacy were held.
• During the former President George W. Bush's administration, he had become increasingly unpopular

Bourgeois Revolutions

The bourgeois revolutions enabled the bourgeoisie to gain political power and a social status which had only been available to the nobility under the Ancien Régime. These revolutions took place in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

This process was begun by two revolutions.

The American Revolution

The French Revolution

2.1. The causes of the war

The American War of Independence was caused by a combination of factors.

• Ideological factors: the colonists were familiar with Enlightenment thinking about liberty and equality. These ideas became the basis for the independence movement.
• Political factors: the British Parliament made decisions about taxes and other issues related to the colonies.
• Economic and social factors: by this

In the play “Journey’s End”, in addition to depict the First World War, the author’s main purpose is to let the audience reflect on how important are moral values in life. In particular, R. C. Sherriff highlights the value of friendship, which is portrayed through the relationship between Stanhope and Osborne. The friendship between the two of them is presented by the author through a series of key scenes, which play an extraordinary role. 

To begin with, since the start, the audience surely understands how strong the relationship between Osborne and Stanhope is. Stanhope is the infantry’s captain: despite his young age, he shows himself to be a fine leader of men, who is able to command his own company and to hold a very responsible... Continue reading "What happened to a good man with his son" »

The Rise of Fascism in Italy

Post-WWI Economic and Social Context in Italy

Following World War I, Italy faced a complex and challenging situation:

• Despite benefiting from the war economically, its agriculture and industry were devastated.
• High unemployment and rising prices plagued the nation.
• The burden of war loans added to the economic strain.

The Impact of the Great Depression on Italy

The global economic crisis further exacerbated Italy's woes:

• Consumption plummeted, leading to factory closures and widespread poverty.

The Rise of Benito Mussolini and the Fascist Party

In this climate of instability, Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party rose to power, capitalizing on popular discontent and promising order and stability.

Characteristics of Fascist