Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Key Events: Spring 1940

In Spring 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure supplies of Swedish steel.

Blitzkrieg (Lightning War)

A rapid attack strategy designed to avoid the prolonged trench warfare experienced in WWI.

Early German Successes

• Germany conquered Paris in 1940, leading to France being divided into North and South zones. The South was governed by Vichy, led by Marshal Pétain.
• June 1940: Battle of Britain commenced.
• In 1941, German troops landed in Africa to drive the English out of Egypt and control the Suez Canal.
• April 1941: Germany, alongside Italy, invaded Yugoslavia, Albania, and Greece.
• June 1941: Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, attacking the USSR.
• December 1941: Japan launched a surprise attack on the USA at Pearl

The Reign of Fernando VII and Isabel II (1820-1868)

Fernando VII: Absolutism and Liberalism

The Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)

• In 1820, troops under Lieutenant Colonel Riego revolted against Fernando VII and restored the Constitution of 1812.
• This period marked the start of the Trienio Liberal, characterized by conflict between moderate liberals and radical liberals (or Exaltados).
• In 1823, Spanish volunteers, known as the Cien Mil Hijos de San Luis, invaded Spain and restored the absolutist throne.

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

The restoration of absolutism marked the start of the Década Ominosa.

The Succession Crisis and the First Carlist War

Fernando VII died in 1833. The succession was determined by the Pragmática Sanción, which replaced the Salic... Continue reading "Spain's 19th Century: Liberalism, Carlist Wars, and Latin American Independence" »

The Weimar Republic and Early Nazism

After World War I, elections for a constituent assembly were held in Germany. The assembly passed a constitution, and Germany became a democratic republic known as the Weimar Republic. From its inception, the new republic faced significant opposition from extremist groups, particularly from the extreme right, who felt betrayed by the Treaty of Versailles.

Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party

Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) emerged as the most prominent leader of this extreme right. He reorganized the National Socialist German Worker’s Party (NSDAP), commonly known as the Nazi Party, and established a paramilitary wing, the Assault Division (SA). As the leader of the Nazi Party, Hitler orchestrated a failed coup attempt,... Continue reading "The Rise of Nazism and Hitler's Dictatorship in Germany" »

Thomas Hobbes: Life and Intellectual Journey

Thomas Hobbes was not an aristocrat. His father was an Anglican priest, which explains why he could have children. This background placed him within the bourgeoisie. Priests, much like modern civil servants, lawyers, or doctors, earned their living through merit, such as the ability to read and interpret texts.

He studied the standard curriculum at Oxford: law, arithmetic, and grammar. However, he always maintained a keen interest in medicine. Hobbes relied on the aristocratic Cavendish family, who financed his studies. This was a common practice among the aristocracy – supporting clever bourgeois individuals in a rapidly changing world. The Cavendish family facilitated Hobbes's access to power,... Continue reading "Thomas Hobbes & Leviathan: State, Power, and Society" »

FRANKS: after the fall of  W.R.E (476) the franks assumed the power in north gaul. The first frankish king was clovis, an impressive military commander from the merovingian dynasty.

507: Clovis expelled the visigoths from southern gaul b. Of vouille who moved south of the pyrenees. 

THe merovingian left government affairs in the hands of the mayors of the palace ; who became the real power.

732: the mayor of the palace charles mantel (Charlemagne´s grandfather) defeated the muslims at the battle of poitiersforcing them to retreat to the iberian peninsula. This victory reinforced the power of the mayors of the palace (who were ancestors of Charlemagne).

751: Charles 

W.B. Yeats and the Irish Literary Revival

W.B. Yeats was an Irish poet whose work often referenced Maud Gonne, an Irish patriot and revolutionary woman. During the early part of his career, he devoted himself to the Irish Literary Revival and Irish patriotism, seeking to develop a new religious iconography based on Irish mythology. He rose to literary prominence and helped to found the Abbey Theatre.

In 1923, Yeats reached the height of his poetic power between the ages of 50 and 70. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest poets of the 20th century. The Waterboys, a popular band, adopted 14 of Yeats' poems for their album "An Appointment with Mr. Yeats." Mike Scott, the band's lead singer, described Yeats' verses as "a gift for any songwriter.... Continue reading "Literature, Architecture, and Libraries: Intertwined Worlds" »

Biscay Miners' Petition and Strike Threats

The workers of the Biscay mines appointed a commission to demand that public authorities end the system of quarters and compulsory shops. The reasons they presented were the broken promises from the bosses about closing compulsory shops and quarters, promises made during the 1890 strike, and the fact that this situation ran counter to the liberal spirit of the century, which favoured individual freedom and freedom of work. The miners threatened to go on strike if the government did not accept their petitions.

Context: Restoration and Industrialization

At the end of the century the Restoration system was set up. This system was rooted in the 1876 Constitution. The system presented itself as the only... Continue reading "Biscay Miners' Labor Movement and Strike Demands" »

The Contemporary Age: A Historical Period

It started in 1789 with the French Revolution. It still continues nowadays.

We will divide the Contemporary Age in two parts to understand better the changes that happened during this stage of history: the 19th century and the 20th and 21st centuries.

The World in the 19th Century

The main events that happened in the 19th century in the world were:

• The French Revolution, which led to a new form of government called liberalism.
• The Industrial Revolution, which is the name given to the technical and economic changes that happened during this century.
• The changes in society that the two previous events caused: the creation of two new social classes: middle class and workers.

Spain in the 19th Century

The main events... Continue reading "The Contemporary Age: 19th Century Transformations" »

The Rise of Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement

In May 1937, Neville Chamberlain became Prime Minister of Britain. He believed that the Treaty of Versailles had treated Germany badly and that there were a number of issues associated with the Treaty that needed to be put right. He felt that giving in to Hitler's demands would prevent another war.

This policy, adopted by Chamberlain's government, became known as the policy of Appeasement. The Munich Agreement, signed by the leaders of Germany, Britain, France, and Italy, agreed that the Sudetenland would be returned to Germany and that no further territorial claims would be made by Germany.

The Czech government was not invited to the conference and protested about the loss of the Sudetenland. They... Continue reading "Neville Chamberlain and the Policy of Appeasement" »

The Provisional Government's Initial Steps

Following the February Revolution, the Provisional Government established liberal credentials, for example, by abolishing the death penalty. Russia became, in theory, the freest of all the warring states.

Challenges Facing the Provisional Government

Unmet Expectations

• Elections were postponed due to World War I.
• The Provisional Government was reluctant to embark on significant land reform, disappointing peasant expectations.

Dual Power Structure

• A major conflict, known as Dual Power, existed between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet (and other left-wing workers' and soldiers' councils across the country).

Breakdown of Law and Order

• Widespread rural disturbances occurred as peasants seized